1. Today Characteristics Brief History Nematodes as Parasites Importance
Form and Function
General Disease Cycle of Plant Parasitic Nematode

2. Nematodes Chapter 15 pg
The term Nematode is of Greek and Latin origin
   Greek               Latin Nema = thread    oid = like =  "threadlike worms"
Nematodes are animals therefore they are in :
Kingdom Animalia 
    Phylum Nemata
30,000 described species
3,000 attack plants

3. Characteristics of a nematode:
1. Invertebrate (without a backbone)
2. Pseudocoelomate (body cavity not surrounded by peritoneum)
3. Round in cross section 
4. Vermiform (worm shaped) at one or more points in its life cycle
5. Heterotrophic (must eat for metabolic synthesis)
6. Nonsegmented (as opposed to true worms and insects)
7. Motile (sinusoidal wavelike movement resulting from contractions in the longitudinal muscles) 
Active movement by nematodes rarely exceeds 75 cm.  However, spreading of nematodes  is primarily due to passive means such as movement of infested soil and crop residue and by water. 

4. Nematode Size
Nematodes range in size from about 200 microns Sphaeronmema minutissima to 26 feet for the blue whale parasite, Placentanema gigantissima.
Plant parasitic species range from 250 to 3,000 microns long and 15 to 35 microns in diameter.

6. Nematode Size

7. History
Ancient times
1) Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine (2700 BC - China) - reference to the intestinal roundworm, Ascaris lumbricoides
2) Hippocrates (430 BC) -  first record of the pinworm, Enterobius vermicularis
3) The Bible (Deuteronomy 14: 6-8) - sanitation laws for the Hebrews
4) The Bible (Numbers 21:4-9)
Fiery Serpent =
 Dracunculus medinensis

8. History Modern Times (Europe)
1) Needham observes Anguina tritici in blighted wheat kernels
2) Berkeley describes first root-knot nematode on cucumber in a glasshouse in England.
3) Kuhn works with and perfects the first method of soil fumigation (carbon disulfide) for nematode control.

9. History Modern Times (America)
1) Leidy publishes first study of nematodes in the U.S.
2) 1900s - Many and varied works of N. A. Cobb, the father of nematology in the U.S.
3) st Nematology course at the University of California, Berkeley.
4) Society of Nematologists founded

10. Where do nematodes live?

11. Nematodes of Humans! Pinworm – especially children
Hookworm – domestic animals, humans are a dead host
Heartworms - domestic animals, humans are a dead host
Trichinella – trichinellosis of man
Guinea worms
Elephantiasis

12. Where do nematodes live?
90% of all plant parasitic nematodes are found in the roots and in the soil environment.
In this environment, 2/3 live as ectoparasites and 1/3 as endoparasites.
Some species
Have juveniles as ecto and adults as endoparasites
Will change parasitism depending on age and type of host, environment, etc.
Migratory or sedentary
10% of all plant parasitic nematodes are found on or in above ground plant parts.
In this environment, only 1/5 live as ectoparasites while the majority live as endoparasites.

13. Importance
Annual losses due to nematodes are estimated at over $80 billion.
 Life-sustaining crops
 % Loss
 Other economically  important crops
Banana
19.7
Citrus
14.2
Barley
6.3
Coffee
15.0
Cassava 
8.4
Cotton
10.7
Chickpea
13.7
Eggplant
16.9
Potato
12.2
Grape
12.5
Rice
10.0
Papaya
15.1
Soybean
10.6
Pineapple
14.9
Sugarcane
15.3
Tomato
20.6
Average
14.0

14. Important concepts:
All nematodes have well-developed muscular, digestive, excretory, reproductive, and nervous systems all covered with a layer of cells called the cuticle.
2. Nematodes differ from higher animals in that they lack organized circulatory and respiratory systems.
3. The digestive and reproductive systems are of the most taxonomic importance.  Only adult females should be used when identifying nematodes.

15. Important concepts: Mouth, which is in the center of 6 lips
4. The digestive system extends from the mouth to the anus and includes these parts:
Mouth, which is in the center of 6 lips
b. Stylet, structure that acts as a syringe and is used to:
1. penetrate the plant cell 2. secrete enzymes and take up nutrients from the plant 3. help hatch from egg
c. Esophagus, which contains a median bulb that performs as a pump for enzyme secretion and nutrient uptake.
d. Intestine, facilitates digestion and absorption of nutrients.
e. Anus, opening from which waste is expelled from the intestine.

17. Morphology

18. Important concepts: 5. Reproductive system
a. Male      Testes, location of sperm production
     Spicules, paired, protrusible copulatory structures that are used to open the vulva for sperm deposition
b. Female     Ovary, location of egg production, nematodes may have one or two ovaries
     Vulva, transverse opening to the outside environment 

19. Nematode Reproduction
There are three types of nematode reproduction:
1. Amphimixis - union of sperm and egg
2. Hermaphroditism - functional male and female sex organs on the same individual
3. Parthenogenesis - the production of offspring from eggs which have NOT been fertilized
A nematode life cycle (egg to egg) generally requires 3 to 4 weeks.

20. General Lifecycle 1. Egg development
2   First-stage juvenile (J1) occurs within the egg
3.  J1 molts (shedding of cuticle), becomes a second-stage juvenile (J2), and hatches  
4.  J2 (infective stage) molts to J3
5.  J3 molts to J4
6.  J4 molts to adult (the fourth and final molt)
7.  Depending on the species, mature adults produce eggs singly or in mass after mating or parthenogenesis

22. Damage
Mechanical injury results from the nematode stylet puncturing the cell wall, and is followed by the secretion of enzymes and nutrient extraction. This process leaves cells that are damaged or completely destroyed. 
Nematode damage can result in a variety of symptoms: 
1. Lesions
2. Galls or swellings 
3. Excessive root branching 
4. Twisted or distorted stems and/or leaves 
5. Disruption in flower development / sterility 
6. Dead or incapacitated root tips
Disease Complexes
While nematodes are devastating pathogens by themselves, their most significant influence in agriculture is a result of their participation in pathogen complexes.