1. Chapter 1: Definitions and Characteristics History of Definitions Characteristics Causes Assessment Instructional methods needed

2. Help! Where do students struggle? When entering your class for the first time, what do students not know that they should have learned in previous grades? K 1 2 3 4 5 6… 2© Witzel, 2010

3. Where do math difficulties begin? What do college math instructors argue that students don’t know yet even though they should? What math skills do high school teachers argue students should have already learned but somehow they didn’t? Middle level teachers? Elementary teachers? © Witzel, 20103

4. Who is at fault? 4

5. The college professor said, "Such wrong in the student is a shame, Lack of preparation in high school is to blame.“ Said the high school teacher, "Good heavens, that boy is a fool. The fault, of course, is with the middle school." The middle school teacher said, "From such stupidity may I be spared, They send him to me so unprepared.“ The elementary teacher said, "The kindergartners are block-heads all. They call it preparation; why, it's worse than none at all.“ The kindergarten teacher said, "Such lack of training never did I see, What kind of mother must that woman be.“ The mother said, "Poor helpless child, he's not to blame For you see, his father's folks are all the same." Said the father, at the end of the line, "I doubt the rascal's even mine!" © Witzel, 20105

6. Just a few of many examples of people with LD Einstein (physicist), Edison (inventor), Washington (President), Wilson (President), Rockefeller (Vice President), Cruise (actor), Bell (inventor), Disney (corporate entertainer), Patton (General), Glover (actor), Von Braun (rocketry), Wright brother (inventors), Lennon (singer), Winkler (director), Ford (actor), Smith (actor, singer), Leno (comedian), Bush (President), Flagg (author), “Stonewall” Jackson (General)... Listed in such work as “Blessed With Dyslexia” by Stacy Poulos and LDA-Ontario by Eve Nichols. To learn about living with a disability, click here.click here

7. History of Definitions Brain-Injured Minimal Brain Dysfunction –Task Force 1 Learning Disabilities –Beliefs: Orton (1937) failure of the left brain to process language –minimal brain dysfunction Myklebust (1954) specific language disorder Frostig et al. (1964) cited perceptual and motor processes Fernald (1943) and Gillingham (1960) written language issue –Sam Kirk (1963) called the general idea through this nonconsensus “Learning Disabilities”

8. LD in legislation EHA (PL94-142) –Zero reject; FAPE; nondiscriminatory tests; LRE; due process; shared decision making –Included components: processing, language, academic, neurological, and exclusion clause IDEA 1990 –Opens states to lawsuits; transition; OHI; –Early intervention; improved dissemination IDEA 1997 –Discipline; IEP team changes; transition statement at age 14 and plan at age 16

9. Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 –Increased accountability to go with NCLB –Improved monitoring of FAPE in the LRE –Resolving conflicts and reduced litigation –Discipline to fit with positive behavioral interventions –Reduces paperwork (no benchmarks and no reconvening) –Improving parental involvement –Supporting teachers –More local control –New identification standards –Early access to services and supports –Improved transition Senator Judd Gregg (NH)

10. 1975 definition of LD The definition provided in US federal code (Section 300.7(c)(10) of 34 CFR Parts 300 and 303): (i) General. The term means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. (ii) Disorders not included. The term does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.

11. SLD Definition in IDEIA 2004 “The term specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.” © Witzel, 200911

12. Characteristics Reading Problems - Written Language Deficits - Math Underachievement - Nonverbal / Social Skills Deficits - Attention Problems and Hyperactivity - Behavioral Problems – Physical / Motor Delays Processing and memory

13. Age Differences Preschool “if we can identify children early we may be able to prevent a learning disability” (Fletcher & Foorman, 1994) Elementary-School Child with LD reading issues become apparent; Matthew Effect Adolescents with LD achievement peaks; readiness and transition skills Adult with LD failures in school translate into unemployment and low employment

14. Gender Differences There may be more females with LD than males… Then why are more boys identified? Male- physical control; writing mechanics; visual- motor connections; spelling errors Females- language; social problems; reading and math deficits

15. LD prevalence data 5.6% of all people Estimates as high as 15% Over half (52%) of all students in special education are LD –Widely varies across US (RI=63%; AL=26%) Placement (as of 1998) –43.8% served in general education class –39.3% in resource rooms –18.8 in a separate class –<1% in separate school, hospital, residential facility 98% of states exclude below average intelligence and environmental disadvantage 52-70% of children identified do not meet state and federal criteria (MacMillan & Speece, 2000). Many could be labeled MR (Gottlieb et al., 1994).

16. Why the increased number of students with learning disabilities? Lyon (1999) said that LD is simply a sociological sponge mopping up after the errors in general education

17. Some Possible Causes of LD (no one cause has been identified) Brain Damage Some students with learning disabilities show definite signs of brain damage, which may be the cause of their learning problems. Some professionals believe that all children with LD suffer from some type of brain injury or dysfunction of the central nervous system. Biochemical Imbalance Some researchers believe that biochemical disturbances within a child's body are the cause of learning disabilities. Heredity Siblings and children of persons with reading disabilities have a slightly greater than normal likelihood of having reading problems. There is growing evidence that heredity may account for at least some of family linkage with dyslexia (Pennington, 1995). Environmental Factors Some educators believe that the majority of children labeled LD are the products of poor instruction, cultural differences and misunderstandings, or disproportionate expectations.

18. Summary Who founded the term “learning disabled?” Define the term learning disabilities? When can a low achiever not be learning disabled? What common characteristics are found in students with learning disabilities? Begin to look at the legal definitions and changes to what we call a learning disability.

19. How do we identify students

20. Significant Discrepancy Disability was operationally defined using IQ and achievement tests Significant Discrepancy calculations –If a student’s IQ was 1, 1.5, or 2 standard deviations (15-30 points) above their achievement scores, then they may qualify for learning disability services – Easy to calculate intra-individual needs –  Does not always address early academic failures –  Does not address legal definition of learning disabilities (processing) –  Misrepresentation © Witzel, 200920

21. No Child Left Behind  Passed in 2002, NCLB is a piece of legislation designed to ensure that every child in America receives a proper education. NCLB holds states, school districts, schools and educators more accountable for the success of each student.  NCLB requires states to have annual standardized tests given to at least 95% of all students. These tests are designed individually by each state to asses the adequate yearly progress of students in reading and math. These standardized tests must be given to students once a year in grades 3-8 and once in grades 10-12.  NCLB has sanctions for schools that fail to meet adequate yearly progress standards including subgroups of students. After two years a failing school must provide paid busing and school choice to students and after 5 years of failing a school will be taken over completely. These sanctions are an attempt to give more choices for schooling to parents and students.  One benefit of NCLB is the flexibility it gives to Title 1 spending. States and local education agencies have greater control over the use of federal education money.  Finally, this act emphasizes the importance of literacy, especially for young children (Essex, 2006). © Witzel, 200921

22. Enter Response to Intervention Recently, in an urban elementary school teachers were asked what RtI meant. The results were mixed: – most said response to intervention – others said referral to intervention; reading tied to instruction –ex. “Provides funding for special educatoin services?” –ex.“No, not really- something with no child left behind?” © Witzel, 200922

23. What is RtI (Hahn, 2008) RTI is:RTI is NOT:  A system of service delivery  A general education led effort implemented within General Education curricula and coordinated with all other services including special education, Title I, ELL, Reading Ed., Mathematics Ed.  An alternative approach to the diagnosis of Learning Disability.  An assessment system that determines if the child responds to scientific research based intervention as a part of evaluation procedures.  A pre-referral system  A fast-track to LD services  A single teacher’s idea  Only special education’s responsibility  Simply more instruction  A separate, stand-alone initiative © Witzel, 200923

24. Critiques LDA Using terminology such as “failure to respond to instruction” means no LD services, no individualized education; no IEPs; no accommodations (504); and no teacher training Vaughn- this may mean that a student would be identified by means of low-achievement or a poor response to the intervention. To adapt to this idea, we need to focus less on within-student factors and begin to try to match assessment and treatments.

25. Legal Definition of RtI IDEIA-04 (PL 108-446) –“… a local educational agency shall not be required to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability…” –“In determining whether a child has a specific learning disability, a local educational agency may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific, research-based intervention as a part of the evaluation procedures…” © Witzel, 200925

26. Relevant Regulations IDEIA-04 §300.307 Specific learning disabilities. (a) General. A State must adopt, consistent with §300.309, criteria for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability as defined in §300.8(c)(10). In addition, the criteria adopted by the State-- (1) Must not require the use of a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability, as defined in §300.8(c)(10); (2) Must permit the use of a process based on the child’s response to scientific, research-based intervention…. (b) Consistency with State criteria. A public agency must use the State criteria adopted pursuant to paragraph (a) of this section in determining whether a child has a specific learning disability. © Witzel, 200926

27. Relevant Regulations IDEIA-04 §300.309 Determining the existence of a specific LD. (b) To ensure that underachievement in a child suspected of having a specific learning disability is not due to lack of appropriate instruction in reading or math, the group must consider… (1) Data that demonstrate that prior to, or as a part of, the referral process, the child was provided appropriate instruction in regular education settings, delivered by qualified personnel; and (2) Data-based documentation of repeated assessments of achievement at reasonable intervals, reflecting formal assessment of student progress during instruction, which was provided to the child’s parents. © Witzel, 200927

28. IDEIA 2004 - quotes (2) Conduct of Evaluations – In conducting the evaluation, the local educational agency shall – (A) use a variety of assessment tools and strategies to gather relevant functional, developmental, and academic information, including information provided by the parent that may assist in determining – (i) whether the child is a child with a disability; and (B) not use any single measure or assessment as the sole criterion for determining whether a child is a child with a disability or determining an appropriate educational program for the child; and (C) use technically sound instruments that may assess the relative contribution of cognitive and behavioral factors, in addition to physical or developmental factors. © Witzel, 200928

29. IDEIA 2004 -quotes (3) Additional Requirements – Each local educational agency shall ensure that – (A) assessments and other evaluation materials use to assess a child under this section – (i) are selected and administered so as not to be discriminatory on a racial or cultural basis; (ii) are provided and administered in the language and form most likely to yield accurate information on what the child knows and can do academically, developmentally, and functionally, unless it is not feasible to so provide or administer; (iii) are used for purposes for which the assessments or measures are valid and reliable; (iv) are administered by trained and knowledgeable personnel; and (v) are administered in accordance with any instructions provided by the producer of such assessments; © Witzel, 200929

30. IDEIA 2004 - quotes (6) Specific Learning Disabilities – (A) In general – Notwithstanding section 607(b), when determining whether a child has a specific learning disability as defined in section 602, a local educational agency shall not be required to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability in oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skill, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation, or mathematical reasoning. © Witzel, 200930

31. IDEIA 2004 - quotes (6) Specific Learning Disabilities – (B) Additional Authority – In determining whether a child has a specific learning disability, a local educational agency may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific, research-based intervention as a part of the evaluation procedures described in paragraphs (2) and (3). © Witzel, 200931

32. Summary of IDEIA 2004 Severe discrepancy between ability and achievement is no longer required Multiple assessment tools are required SLD assessment requires more than one measure or assessment Assessment can not discriminate against race or culture Definition still includes processing 32