1. 4.1 The Function of the Nucleus within the Cell
Animal Cells
Animal cells are equipped with many structures that allow the cell to perform a variety of functions.
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2. Cell Parts and Organelles
Animal Cell Parts (also found in plant cells)
cell membrane - thin covering that controls the flow of materials in and out of the cell.
cytoplasm - jelly-like substance contains the organelles (specialized cell parts)
mitochondria - provide energy for cells
ribosomes - manufacturing plants for proteins
endoplasmic reticulum - membrane-covered channels that act as a transport system for materials made in the cell
vesicles - membrane-covered sacs formed by the endoplasmic reticulum. Vesicles transport new proteins to the Golgi body.
Golgi body - sorts and packages proteins for transport
nucleus - controls all cell activities
nucleolus - membrane-free organelle that makes ribosomes
nuclear membrane - protects the contents of the nucleus
Nuclear pores - openings in the nuclear membrane that allow only certain materials to pass
vacuoles - membrane-bound storage containers
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3. Cell Parts and Organelles
Plant Cells
Plant cells are equipped with some structures that animal cells do not have.
chloroplasts - trap energy from Sun to make glucose, food for the plant
cell wall - tough, rigid structure that surrounds cell membrane, provides protection and structural support
large vacuoles - plant cells are equipped with a large vacuole for storing water
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The Nucleus and DNA
The nucleus contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid); DNA is the molecule has the master set of instructions for how cells function, what they will produce, and when they will die
Structure of DNA
DNA looks like a twisted ladder - two strands wrap around each other in a spiral shape.
The sides of the DNA ladder are made of sugar and phosphate.
The steps of the ladder are made of four nitrogen bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
The bases join in a specific way
A always joins with T
G always joins with C
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DNA Structure
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DNA in the Nucleus
Most of the time DNA is in the form of chromatin
Chromatin coils tightly into X-shaped chromosomes
Every organism has a specific number of chromosomes
Human cells have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs
The 23rd pair determines sex; XX for females and XY for males
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Genes
Genes are small segments of DNA located on a chromosome
Genes store the information needed to produce proteins
Each chromosome can carry thousands of genes
All your body cells have the same genes, but only specific genes are “read” in each cell to produce specific proteins
Specialized proteins called enzymes and hormones carry out important specific functions in the body
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8. Production of Proteins
Protein production in the cell involves several important steps:
The nucleus receives a chemical signal to make a specific protein.
The DNA message for the protein is copied into a small molecule called RNA.
RNA leaves the nucleus through a nuclear pore.
The RNA message is delivered to a ribosome, the ribosome makes the protein.
The manufactured protein enters the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
A vesicle forms at the end of the ER, and carries the protein to the Golgi body.
The Golgi body repackages the protein for transport out of the cell.
A vesicle forms off the end of the Golgi body to carry the protein to the cell membrane.
The vesicle attaches to the cell membrane, and its protein contents are released out of the cell.
Take the Section 4.1 Quiz
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4.2 Mutation
A gene mutation involves a change in the order of bases (A,C,T,G) that make up the gene. There are several types of gene mutation:
Deletion (base missing)
Addition (extra base added)
Substitution (one base substituted for another)
Gene mutations may produce proteins that are beneficial or harmful to the organism, or may have no effect at all.
Example: a particular mutated gene produces white coat Kermode bears - they occur as only a small percentage of the population (they are normally black in colour).
GNU License Photo
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Effects of Mutations
Positive Mutations
When a gene mutation benefits the individual.
Example: Some plants have developed resistance to bacterial and fungal infections.
Negative Mutations
When a gene mutation harms the individual
Example: Sickle cell genes in affected humans cause blood cells that are abnormally shaped.
Neutral Mutation
When a gene mutation has no effect on the individual
Example: The white Kermode bear
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11. Mutagens & Mutation Repair
Mutagens are substances or factors that cause mutations
Environmental mutagens such as mercury, cigarette smoke, X-ray and UV radiation, and certain viruses can cause mutations
Correcting mutations is difficult, but new techniques such as gene therapy offer hope.
Gene therapy is complicated and experimental:
A virus in engineered to carry a normal gene
The virus must somehow be targeted to the cells with the defective gene
The normal gene must then replace the defective gene
The normal gene must then be “switched on” so that the replacement normal gene produces the proper healthy proteins. It is also important that the normal gene make the correct amount of healthy protein.
Take the Section 4.2 Quiz
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12. 5.1 The Cell Cycle and Mitosis
Due to the loss and death of cells, the body must replace them. A good example of this is human skin cells - each day millions are shed.
The life of a cell is divided into three stages known as the cell cycle:
Interphase: cell carries out normal functions.
Mitosis: nucleus contents duplicated and divide into two equal parts.
Cytokinesis: separation of two nuclei and cell contents into two daughter cells.
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Parts of the Cell Cycle
Interphase, the longest cell cycle stage, is when a cell performs normal functions and grows. For example, an intestinal lining cell absorbing nutrients.
In late interphase, DNA copies itself in the process of replication. Replication involves several steps:
The DNA molecule unwinds with the help of an enzyme.
New bases pair with the bases on the original DNA.
Two new identical DNA molecules are produced.
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Mitosis
At the end of interphase, the cell continues to grow and make proteins in preparation for mitosis and cytokinesis.
Mitosis
Mitosis is the shortest stage of the cell cycle where the nuclear contents divide, and two daughter nuclei are formed. It occurs in 4 stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase.
As the nucleus prepares to divide, replicated DNA in interphase joins to form sister chromatids, joined by a centromere.
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Stages of Mitosis
Early Prophase - nucleolus disappears and spindle fibres form
Late Prophase - spindle fibres attach to centromeres of chromosomes
Metaphase - chromosomes align on equator of cell
Anaphase - spindle fibres pull sister chromatids to opposite poles of cell
Telophase - in this final stage, spindle fibres disappear and a nuclear membrane forms around each separated set of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis is the separation of the nuclei into two daughter cells
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Cell Cycle Problems
Checkpoints in the cell cycle will prevent division if:
If the cell is short of nutrients
If the DNA within the nucleus has not been replicated
If the DNA is damaged
Mutations in genes involving checkpoints can result in an out-of-control cell cycle. The result can be uncontrolled cell division: cancer.
Cancer cells have large, abnormal nuclei
Cancer cells are not specialized, so they serve no function
Cancer cells attract blood vessels and grow into tumours.
Cells from tumours can break away to other areas of the body
Take the Section 5.1 Quiz
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5.2 Asexual Reproduction
A clone is an identical genetic copy of its parent
Many organisms naturally form clones via asexual reproduction
Cloning is also used in agriculture and research to copy desired organisms, tissues and genes
Type of Asexual Reproduction
Binary fission - single cell organisms splitting into identical copies
Budding - areas of multicellular organisms undergo repeated mitosis to form an identical organism. Buds sometimes detach to form a separate organism
Fragmentation - part of an organism breaks off due to injury, and the part grows into a clone of the parent
Vegetative reproduction - special cells in plants that develop into structures that form new plants identical to the parent
Spore formation - some bacteria, micro-organisms and fungi can form spores - single cells that can grow into a whole new organism
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Asexual Reproduction
Grafting
Binary fission
Bud ----->
Budding in Hydra
Vegetative reproduction
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Asexual Reproduction
Advantages and Disadvantages
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20. Human Assisted Cloning
Humans use all the asexual cloning methods in order to produce desired results with organisms. This is done in several ways:
Reproductive cloning - purpose is to produce a genetic duplicate of an existing or dead organism. Steps involved:
Remove nucleus from an egg cell
A mammary gland cell is removed from an adult female
Electricity fuses mammary and egg cell
Fused cell begins dividing
Dividing embryo is inserted into surrogate mother
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Cloning Dolly
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Therapeutic cloning
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23. Human Assisted Cloning
Therapeutic cloning - purpose is to correct health problems
Very important to therapeutic cloning are stem cells - cells that can become different types of cells
Stem cells can be used to replace cells damaged from injuries or disease
Diabetes, spinal injuries, Parkinson’s disease are only a few that can benefit from stem cell therapy
Controversial because the best stem cells are from embryos which are destroyed when harvesting cells
Mouse Stem Cells
Take the Section 5.2 Quiz
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6.1 Meiosis
Meiosis is an important aspect of sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction, through the shuffling of DNA, produces genetic diversity.
This variation offspring produces individuals that may have advantages over one another.
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Role of Gametes
Normal body cells have a diploid chromosome number, meaning chromosomes occur in pairs. In humans, the male and female each contribute 23 chromosomes - when fertilization takes place, 23 (egg) + 23 (sperm) = 46 (zygote)
The zygote goes on to develop into an embryo, and on into a complete individual. When the time comes, the cycle repeats - humans produce gametes (either egg or sperm) that have half (haploid) the normal number of chromosomes.
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Meiosis
Meiosis produces gametes with half the chromosomes compared to body cells:
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Meiosis Events
Meiosis I
Matching chromosome pairs (homologous chromosomes) move to opposite poles of the cell - two daughter cells result.
Meiosis II
Chromatids of each chromosome are pulled apart - the end result is four haploid cells, each with half the number of chromosomes. These develop into gametes.
Crossing Over
In meiosis I, chromatids of chromosome pairs can cross over each other and exchange DNA segments - this increases genetic possibilities and produces more variation
Independent Assortment
The pairs of chromosomes in meiosis I separate independently, creating many different combinations of chromosomes in the daughter cells
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Meiosis Details
Gametes do not form equally in males and females
In males, all 4 cells resulting from meiosis develop into sperm.
In females, 1 cell gets most of the cytoplasm and becomes the egg.
Chromosome mutations sometimes occur spontaneously
Chromosome changes during meiosis can cause changes in the genetic information. Parts of chromosomes can be inverted, deleted, duplicated or moved to another spot.
Cromosome mutations can occur because of mutagens
Chromosome changes, sometimes leading to genetic disease or death, can be cause by mutagens such as radiation or chemicals.
Failed separation of chromosomes in meiosis has serious consequences
Failed separation means that a gamete may end up with no chromosome or too many of a chromosome. Zygotes that result from these gametes rarely survive, and if they do, they will have serious genetic disorders.
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Genetic Disorders
The chromosomes of an individual can be studied
By using a karyotype, geneticists can view an individual’s chromosomes.
Certain genetic disorders or syndromes occur when there are specific chromosomes extra or missing
Down syndrome usually occurs when there is an extra 21st chromsome
Down syndrome karyotype
Take the Section 6.1 Quiz
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6.2 Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction brings non-identical gametes together to form a new organism - it occurs in 3 stages:
Mating - the process by which gametes are bought together at same place and same time
Fertilization - process by which egg and sperm join to form a new organism
Development - the process by which an organism develops as an embryo
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31. Methods of Fertilization
External or Internal Fertilization
In order for either of these methods to produce a successfully developing embryo, certain conditions must be met:
Embryo must have enough nutrients.
Temperature must not be too cold or too hot.
There must be enough moisture so that embryo does not dry out.
Embryo must be protected from predators and items in environment that can potentially harm it.
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32. External Fertilization
In external fertilization, sperm and egg join outside parents
Advantages
Very little energy required to mate
Large numbers of offspring produced
Offspring can be spread widely in the environment - less competition between each other and parents
Disadvantages
Many gametes will not survive
Many eggs will not be fertilized
Offspring are often not protected by parents, so many of them die
Frog Eggs - GNU Free Doc Photo
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33. Internal Fertilization
In internal fertilization, sperm and egg join inside parents, embryo is nourished inside mother
Advantages
Embryo protected from predators
Offspring more likely to survive, as many species will protect their them while they mature
Disadvantages
Much more energy required to find mate
Fewer zygotes produced, resulting in less offspring
More energy required to raise and care for offspring
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Pollination
Most plants transfer male gametes as pollen. Pollen can be carried by wind or other organisms.
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35. Embryonic Development
Embryonic development is the early development of an organism - in humans, it is the first two months after fertilization
Stages
End of the first week - ball of cells called morula
By end of second week it is a hollow ball called a blastula
Cells at this stage are stem cells, and have the ability to develop into any kind of cell
In the next stage the embryo is known as a gastrula and develops 3 layers: ectoderm (skin, nerves), mesoderm (muscles, bones), and endoderm (lungs, liver, digestive system lining)
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Fetal Development
The cell layers now differentiate into the organs and tissues of a baby - this is divided into 3 trimesters.
First Trimester (0-12 weeks)
Organ systems begin to develop and form. Bone cells form.
Second Trimester (12-24 weeks)
Rapid growth from weeks.
Third Trimester (24+ weeks)
Continued growth, especially of brain. Fat begins to deposit at 32 weeks to keep baby warm at birth.
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37. Sexual Reproduction Advantages and Disadvantages
Take the Section 6.2 Quiz
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38. 6.3 Assisted Reproductive Technologies
Infertility is the inability of a couple to have a baby
Assisted reproductive technologies involve removing eggs from the woman, fertilizing them, and returning them to the uterus.
Types of Assisted Reproductive Technologies
Artificial Insemination - donor sperm is placed in the female.
In vitro fertilization (IVF) - egg and sperm are collected and fertilization takes place in a dish. Embryo(s) then placed in female’s uterus.
Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) - eggs and sperm are collected, mixed, then injected into the woman’s fallopian tubes.
Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) - a single sperm is injected directly into an egg.
Reproductive technologies help childless couples, but carry a higher risk of birth defects. Also creates the problem of “unwanted” embryos. What should be done with them?
Take the Section 6.3 Quiz
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