1. 1 Foundations of Individual Behavior Dr. Fred Mugambi Mwirigi JKUAT

2. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 2 Why study OB? ‘It helps to develop best fit between the employee and the job, the employee and other employees, the employee and the organization’

3. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 3 Biographical Characteristics  Does age influence productivity at work?  Does marital status influence productivity at work?  Do physical characteristics influence productivity at work?  Does Gender influence productivity at work?  Does ethnicity influence productivity at work?

4. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 4 Abilities  Everyone has strengths and weaknesses in terms of ability in performing certain tasks or activities  Ability refers to an individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. It is a current assessment of what one can do.  Abilities can be categorized into: 1. intellectual 2. physical

5. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 5 Intellectual abilities  Intellectual abilities The capacity to do mental activities such as thinking, reasoning and problem solving. The capacity to do mental activities such as thinking, reasoning and problem solving.

6. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 6 Multiple Intelligences Intelligence can be subdivided into four subparts: Cognitive intelligence Cognitive intelligence Traditional aptitudes associated with intelligenceTraditional aptitudes associated with intelligence Social intelligence Social intelligence Ability to relate effectively to othersAbility to relate effectively to others Emotional intelligence Emotional intelligence Ability to identify, understand and manage emotionsAbility to identify, understand and manage emotions Cultural intelligence Cultural intelligence Awareness of cross-cultural differencesAwareness of cross-cultural differences

7. Another view (Howard Gardner’s Theory) Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 7

8. 8 Contd.  Intellectual abilities are those needed to perform mental activities – for thinking, reasoning and problem solving.  IQ tests are designed to ascertain one’s general intellectual abilities. Examples of such tests are admission tests used by some universities such as the GMAT.  The seven most frequently cited dimensions making up intellectual abilities are: number aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, spatial visualisation, and memory.

9. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 9 Physical ability The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength and similar characteristics. Employee’s Abilities Job’s Ability Requirements Ability-Job Fit

10. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 10 Contd  Research has identified nine basic abilities involved in the performance of physical tasks, dynamic strength, trunk strength, static strength, explosive strength, extent flexibility, dynamic flexibility, body coordination, balance, stamina.

11. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 11 Influencers of Abilities 1. Biographical factors Personal characteristics—such as age, gender, and marital status—that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. 2. Social factors The society and its interplay with the persona society influences abilities society influences abilities 3. Learning Is the key influencer of abilities Is the key influencer of abilities

12. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 12 Learning Any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.  Characteristics of learning: 1. Involves change 2. Is relatively permanent 3. Is acquired through experience and exposure to learning material Learning enhances ability.

13. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 13 Theories of Learning Three main: 1. Classical conditioning 2. Operant conditioning 3. Social learning

14. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 14 Classical conditioning A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. Key Concepts Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Conditioned response Key Concepts Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Conditioned response

15. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 15 Classical Conditioning  Classical conditioning grew out of experiments conducted at the turn of the century by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, to teach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell.  The meat was an unconditioned stimulus; it invariably caused the dog to react in a specific way.  The bell was an artificial stimulus, or what we call the conditioned stimulus.  The conditioned response. This describes the behaviour of the dog; it salivated in reaction to the bell alone.

16. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 16 Operant conditioning A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behaviour leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. Key Concepts Reflexive (unlearned) behaviour Conditioned (learned) behaviour Reinforcement Key Concepts Reflexive (unlearned) behaviour Conditioned (learned) behaviour Reinforcement

17. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 17 Operant Conditioning  Premiered by Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner.  Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they do not want.  The tendency to repeat behaviour influenced by reinforcement or lack of it.

18. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 18 Tenets of Operant Conditioning 1. Behaviour is learned. 2. People are likely to engage in desired behaviours if they are positively reinforced for doing so. 3. Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response. 4. Any situation in which it is either explicitly stated or implicitly suggested that reinforcements are contingent on some action on your part involves the use of operant learning.

19. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 19 Social-learning theory People can learn through observation and direct experience. Key Concepts Attention processes Retention processes Motor reproduction processes Reinforcement processes Key Concepts Attention processes Retention processes Motor reproduction processes Reinforcement processes

20. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 20 Social Learning Theory Contd.  Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people, by being told about something, as well as by direct experiences.  Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people, by being told about something, as well as by direct experiences.  The influence of models and celebrities is central to social learning.

21. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 21 Determinants of influence of models 1. Attentional processes. People learn from a model only when they recognise and pay attention to its critical features. 2. Retention processes. A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available. 3. Motor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new behaviour by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. 4. Reinforcement processes. Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modelled behaviour if positive incentives or rewards are provided.

22. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 22 Shaping Behavior  Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response- especially by rewarding or punishing. Key Concepts Reinforcement is required to change behaviour Some rewards are more effective than others The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence. Key Concepts Reinforcement is required to change behaviour Some rewards are more effective than others The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

23. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 23 Types of Reinforcement  Positive reinforcement Providing a reward for a desired behaviour Providing a reward for a desired behaviour  Negative reinforcement Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behaviour occurs Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behaviour occurs  Punishment Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behaviour Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behaviour  Extinction Withholding reinforcement of a behaviour to cause its cessation. Withholding reinforcement of a behaviour to cause its cessation.

24. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 24 Schedules of Reinforcement Two main types: 1. Continuous reinforcement  A desired behaviour is reinforced each time it is demonstrated. 2. Intermittent reinforcement  A desired behaviour is reinforced often enough to make the behaviour worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.

25. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 25 Types of intermittent reinforcement  Fixed-interval schedule Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals. Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.  Variable-interval schedule Rewards are distributed at random times; reinforcements are unpredictable Rewards are distributed at random times; reinforcements are unpredictable

26. Contd.  Fixed-ratio schedule Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses (e.g. payment for piece-rate workers) Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses (e.g. payment for piece-rate workers)  Variable-ratio schedule Rewards are varied relative to the behaviour of the individual. Rewards are varied relative to the behaviour of the individual. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 26

27. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 27 Behavior Modification The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting. Problem-solving model for Behavioral Problems Identify critical behaviours Develop baseline data Identify behavioural consequences Apply intervention Evaluate performance improvement. Problem-solving model for Behavioral Problems Identify critical behaviours Develop baseline data Identify behavioural consequences Apply intervention Evaluate performance improvement.

28. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 28 Critical behaviours  Critical behaviours make a significant impact on the employee’s job performance; these are those 5–10 percent of behaviours that may account for up to 70 or 80 percent of each employee’s performance.

29. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 29 Implications to Managers  Ability directly influences an employee’s level of performance.  An effective selection process will improve ability-job-fit.  The fit can also be improved by fine-tuning the job to better match an incumbent’s abilities.  Biographical characteristics are readily observable to managers, however, that doesn’t mean all must be used to select employees  Any observable change in behaviour is prima facie evidence that learning has taken place.  Positive reinforcement is a powerful tool for modifying behaviour.

30. Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015Thursday, September 17, 2015 30 End of lesson two Thursday, September 17, 2015 30Compiled by Fred Mugambi Mwirigi