1. Chapter 1: Definitions and Characteristics
History of Definitions
Characteristics
Causes
Assessment
Instructional methods needed

2. Just a few of many examples of people with LD
Einstein (physicist), Edison (inventor), Washington (President), Wilson (President), Rockefeller (Vice President), Cruise (actor), Bell (inventor), Disney (corporate entertainer), Patton (General), Glover (actor), Von Braun (rocketry), Wright brother (inventors), Lennon (singer), Winkler (director), Ford (actor), Smith (actor, singer), Leno (comedian), Bush (President), Flagg (author), “Stonewall” Jackson (General) ...
Listed in such work as “Blessed With Dyslexia” by Stacy Poulos and LDA-Ontario by Eve Nichols.
To learn about living with a disability, click here.

3. History of Definitions
Brain-Injured
Minimal Brain Dysfunction
Task Force 1
Learning Disabilities
Beliefs:
Orton (1937) failure of the left brain to process language
minimal brain dysfunction
Myklebust (1954) specific language disorder
Frostig et al. (1964) cited perceptual and motor processes
Fernald (1943) and Gillingham (1960) written language issue
Sam Kirk (1963) called the general idea through this nonconsensus “Learning Disabilities”

4. LD in legislation EHA (PL94-142) IDEA 1990 IDEA 1997
Zero reject; FAPE; nondiscriminatory tests; LRE; due process; shared decision making
Included components: processing, language, academic, neurological, and exclusion clause
IDEA 1990
Opens states to lawsuits; transition; OHI;
Early intervention; improved dissemination
IDEA 1997
Discipline; IEP team changes; transition statement at age 14 and plan at age 16

5. 1975 definition of LD
The definition provided in US federal code (Section 300.7(c)(10) of 34 CFR Parts 300 and 303): (i) General. The term means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. (ii) Disorders not included. The term does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.

6. SLD Definition in IDEIA 2004
“The term specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.”
© Witzel, 2009

7. Definitions as Congress decides
Most legislation will center around “failure to respond to instruction”
IDA (2003)
“Learning disabilities are due to cognitive deficits intrinsic to the individual and are often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities. Such disorders result in performance deficits in spite of quality instruction and predict anomalies in the development of adaptive functions having consequences across a lifespan.”

8. Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004
Increased accountability to go with NCLB
Improved monitoring of FAPE in the LRE
Resolving conflicts and reduced litigation
Discipline to fit with positive behavioral interventions
Reduces paperwork (no benchmarks and no reconvening)
Improving parental involvement
Supporting teachers
More local control
New identification standards
Early access to services and supports
Improved transition
Senator Judd Gregg (NH)

9. Characteristics Reading Problems - Written Language Deficits -
Math Underachievement -
Nonverbal / Social Skills Deficits -
Attention Problems and Hyperactivity -
Behavioral Problems –
Physical / Motor Delays
Processing and memory
(Working Memory)

10. Your turn
When have you felt learning disabled?

11. Age Differences Preschool Elementary-School Child with LD
“if we can identify children early we may be able to prevent a learning disability” (Fletcher & Foorman, 1994)
Elementary-School Child with LD
reading issues become apparent; Matthew Effect
Adolescents with LD
achievement peaks; readiness and transition skills
Adult with LD
failures in school translate into unemployment and low employment

12. Gender Differences There may be more females with LD than males…
Then why are more boys identified?
Male- physical control; writing mechanics; visual-motor connections; spelling errors
Females- language; social problems; reading and math deficits

13. LD prevalence data 5.6% of all people Estimates as high as 15%
Over half (52%) of all students in special education are LD
Widely varies across US (RI=63%; AL=26%)
Placement (as of 1998)
43.8% served in general education class
39.3% in resource rooms
18.8 in a separate class
<1% in separate school, hospital, residential facility
98% of states exclude below average intelligence and environmental disadvantage
52-70% of children identified do not meet state and federal criteria (MacMillan & Speece, 2000). Many could be labeled MR (Gottlieb et al., 1994).

14. Why the increased number of students with learning disabilities?
Hallahan (1992) said that as the terms become more defined and identification become more specific we should expect to see growing numbers
Lyon (1999) said that LD is simply a sociological sponge mopping up after the errors in general education

15. Some Possible Causes of LD (no one cause has been identified)
Brain Damage Some students with learning disabilities show definite signs of brain damage, which may be the cause of their learning problems. Some professionals believe that all children with LD suffer from some type of brain injury or dysfunction of the central nervous system.
Biochemical Imbalance Some researchers believe that biochemical disturbances within a child's body are the cause of learning disabilities.
Heredity Siblings and children of persons with reading disabilities have a slightly greater than normal likelihood of having reading problems. There is growing evidence that heredity may account for at least some of family linkage with dyslexia (Pennington, 1995).
Environmental Factors Some educators believe that the majority of children labeled LD are the products of poor instruction, cultural differences and misunderstandings, or disproportionate expectations.

16. Effective Sped Teachers adapted from E. S. Gomisch (2011), BrightHub
Be able to
Articulate clear learning goals and objectives that are appropriate for the students to all stakeholders
Know aspects of students background knowledge and characteristics
Demonstrate an understanding of the connections between content from one lesson and year to the next and transition and scaffold students appropriately
Create or select teaching methods, curricula, and resources that are appropriate for the students
Create and select assessment strategies that are appropriate for the students
Create a climate that promotes fairness and challenges students appropriately in a safe physical environment
Teach effectively and adjust to the needs of the students
Reflect on one’s effectiveness in the classroom and other aspects (home and work)

17. Summary Who founded the term “learning disabled?”
Define the term learning disabilities?
When can a low achiever not be learning disabled?
What common characteristics are found in students with learning disabilities?
Begin to look at the legal definitions and changes to what we call a learning disability.

18. How do we identify students

19. Significant Discrepancy
Disability was operationally defined using IQ and achievement tests
Significant Discrepancy calculations
If a student’s IQ was 1, 1.5, or 2 standard deviations (15-30 points) above their achievement scores, then they may qualify for learning disability services
 Easy to calculate intra-individual needs
 Does not always address early academic failures
 Does not address legal definition of learning disabilities (processing)
 Misrepresentation
© Witzel, 2009

20. No Child Left Behind
Passed in 2002, NCLB is a piece of legislation designed to ensure that every child in America receives a proper education. NCLB holds states, school districts, schools and educators more accountable for the success of each student.
NCLB requires states to have annual standardized tests given to at least 95% of all students.  These tests are designed individually by each state to asses the adequate yearly progress of students in reading and math.  These standardized tests must be given to students once a year in grades 3-8 and once in grades  
NCLB has sanctions for schools that fail to meet adequate yearly progress standards including subgroups of students. After two years a failing school must provide paid busing and school choice to students and after 5 years of failing a school will be taken over completely. These sanctions are an attempt to give more choices for schooling to parents and students.  
One benefit of NCLB is the flexibility it gives to Title 1 spending. States and local education agencies have greater control over the use of federal education money.
Finally, this act emphasizes the importance of literacy, especially for young children  (Essex, 2006). 
© Witzel, 2009

21. Enter Response to Intervention
Recently, in an urban elementary school teachers were asked what RtI meant.
The results were mixed:
most said response to intervention
others said referral to intervention; reading tied to instruction
ex. “Provides funding for special educatoin services?”
ex.“No, not really- something with no child left behind?”
© Witzel, 2009

22. What is RtI (Hahn, 2008) RTI is: RTI is NOT:
A system of service delivery
A general education led effort implemented within General Education curricula and coordinated with all other services including special education, Title I, ELL, Reading Ed., Mathematics Ed.
An alternative approach to the diagnosis of Learning Disability.
An assessment system that determines if the child responds to scientific research based intervention as a part of evaluation procedures.
A pre-referral system
A fast-track to LD services
A single teacher’s idea
Only special education’s responsibility
Simply more instruction
A separate, stand-alone initiative
© Witzel, 2009

23. RtI is also called Response to Instruction and Intervention
Scientific Research-based Interventions
Multi-tier System of Support

24. Critiques
LDA
Using terminology such as “failure to respond to instruction” means no LD services, no individualized education; no IEPs; no accommodations (504); and no teacher training
Vaughn- this may mean that a student would be identified by means of low-achievement or a poor response to the intervention. To adapt to this idea, we need to focus less on within-student factors and begin to try to match assessment and treatments.

25. Legal Definition of RtI
IDEIA-04 (PL )
“… a local educational agency shall not be required to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability…”
“In determining whether a child has a specific learning disability, a local educational agency may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific, research-based intervention as a part of the evaluation procedures…”
© Witzel, 2009

26. Relevant Regulations IDEIA-04
§ Specific learning disabilities. (a) General. A State must adopt, consistent with § , criteria for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability as defined in §300.8(c)(10). In addition, the criteria adopted by the State-- (1) Must not require the use of a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability, as defined in §300.8(c)(10); (2) Must permit the use of a process based on the child’s response to scientific, research-based intervention…. (b) Consistency with State criteria. A public agency must use the State criteria adopted pursuant to paragraph (a) of this section in determining whether a child has a specific learning disability.
© Witzel, 2009

27. Relevant Regulations IDEIA-04
§ Determining the existence of a specific LD. (b) To ensure that underachievement in a child suspected of having a specific learning disability is not due to lack of appropriate instruction in reading or math, the group must consider… (1) Data that demonstrate that prior to, or as a part of, the referral process, the child was provided appropriate instruction in regular education settings, delivered by qualified personnel; and (2) Data-based documentation of repeated assessments of achievement at reasonable intervals, reflecting formal assessment of student progress during instruction, which was provided to the child’s parents.
© Witzel, 2009

28. IDEIA quotes
(2) Conduct of Evaluations – In conducting the evaluation, the local educational agency shall – (A) use a variety of assessment tools and strategies to gather relevant functional, developmental, and academic information, including information provided by the parent that may assist in determining – (i) whether the child is a child with a disability; and (B) not use any single measure or assessment as the sole criterion for determining whether a child is a child with a disability or determining an appropriate educational program for the child; and (C) use technically sound instruments that may assess the relative contribution of cognitive and behavioral factors, in addition to physical or developmental factors.
© Witzel, 2009

29. IDEIA quotes
(3) Additional Requirements – Each local educational agency shall ensure that – (A) assessments and other evaluation materials use to assess a child under this section – (i) are selected and administered so as not to be discriminatory on a racial or cultural basis; (ii) are provided and administered in the language and form most likely to yield accurate information on what the child knows and can do academically, developmentally, and functionally, unless it is not feasible to so provide or administer; (iii) are used for purposes for which the assessments or measures are valid and reliable; (iv) are administered by trained and knowledgeable personnel; and (v) are administered in accordance with any instructions provided by the producer of such assessments;
© Witzel, 2009

30. IDEIA quotes
(6) Specific Learning Disabilities – (A) In general – Notwithstanding section 607(b), when determining whether a child has a specific learning disability as defined in section 602, a local educational agency shall not be required to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability in oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skill, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation, or mathematical reasoning.
© Witzel, 2009

31. IDEIA quotes
(6) Specific Learning Disabilities – (B) Additional Authority – In determining whether a child has a specific learning disability, a local educational agency may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific, research-based intervention as a part of the evaluation procedures described in paragraphs (2) and (3).
© Witzel, 2009

32. Summary of IDEIA 2004
Severe discrepancy between ability and achievement is no longer required
Multiple assessment tools are required
SLD assessment requires more than one measure or assessment
Assessment can not discriminate against race or culture
Definition still includes processing