1. A level Geography Tectonic activity and hazards
PowerPoint presentation by
Médecins Sans Frontières / Doctors Without Borders (MSF)UK
Schools Team: Mary Doherty and Severa von Wentzel
March 2013
Note for teachers: These materials are produced by MSF (with the assistance of the Geographical Association and a working group of teachers of A level Geography) to support the teaching and learning of Geography A2, they draw upon material from MSF’s work in the field and meet many of the requirements of Edexcel Unit 4 Geographical research and also the tectonic aspects of AQA and OCR specifications.
The notes will identify clearly the aspects of the specifications addressed.
These resources were produced from thorough research and are comprehensive and extensive It is intended that these resources will be used flexibly with teachers reviewing the presentation and selecting the slides, information and student activities which best match their learners needs.

2. MSF Geography Working Group
MSF would like to thank the members of the working group for
their contributions and help in developing these materials:
Janet Carlsson of Alleyn's School
Adam Thomas former MSF Logistician
Ed Jennings of Hayes School Bromley
John Lyon of the Geographical Association
Nicky Martin of Coloma Girls Convent School Croydon
Rick Vasconcellos of Acland Burghley School Camden
Jo Woolley of Dulwich College
Note for teachers: We have used the PowerPoint format throughout so teachers have the complete document easily accessible.
The PowerPoint is structured with information for students on the main slide, including Action for students.
This notes section is used for the Teachers notes.
In some sections of the presentation we have included exemplar materials and templates. These are included to aid the students developing independence.

3. This PowerPoint
Tectonic Activity is presented as a PowerPoint Presentation to facilitate use by teachers. The footer on many slides includes Note for teachers.
It is anticipated that teachers will use slide sorter and select the slides appropriate to their students and their specifications and develop a customised slideshow.
For teaching and learning, view as a slide show to benefit from animation
When planning, teachers will find it helpful to start from the normal view which shows the footers and the Note for teachers.
Teachers can click to videos, websites etc. directly from the slides when in the slide show mode.

4. Guide to this presentation
References to teaching specifications. Definitions in violet Action for students Further info Video Direct quote Key Link to appendix A Back to contents Contents K
Contents

5. Organisation of this Presentation.
Presentation structure
PART I
Introduction
Teaching specifications
Your research and writing
Exemplar slides for your case studies
PART II
Section 1
Tectonic hazards and causes
Section 2
Tectonic hazards: physical impacts
Section 3
Tectonic hazards: human impacts
Section 4
Responses to tectonic hazards
Appendix A
Further info (Hyperlink)
Note for teachers: The presentation is organised in seven sections to assist teachers and students in selecting the appropriate slides to meet the requirements of their Awarding Body specification and to match to their learners.

6. Contents
PART I Organisation and guide to this presentation Awarding body specifications Your research, case studies and writing Exemplar slides for your research Starting your case studies PART II - Section One Tectonic hazards and causes Event, hazard or disaster? Defining tectonic events and hazards Seismic waves Primary and secondary effects of earthquakes Plate tectonics, GPS PART II - Section Two Tectonic Hazards: Physical impacts Event Profiles Tectonic impacts Mind map exercise Physical factors Human factors Fault action

7. Contents (cont’d)
PART II - Section Three Tectonic hazards: human impacts Geophysical and hydro-meteorological hazards and trends Why do people live in tectonically active areas? Dregg’s Disaster Model Disaster Risk Equation Specific hazard impacts: human and economic costs Exemplar table for your research: hazard impacts over time Haiti (2010) Earthquake Prediction PART II - Section Four Responses to tectonic hazards Coping with tectonic hazard Haiti housing crisis action Insight into humanitarian work The work of a MSF logistician Cholera and GIS Social Media Disaster Risk Reduction Early warning Appendix International humanitarian System Further Info on Haiti

8. AQA Unit 3: Seismicity
The causes and main characteristics of earthquakes:
focus and epicentre; seismic waves and earthquake
measurement.
Tsunamis – characteristics and causes.
Two case studies of recent (ideally within the last 30 years)
seismic events should be undertaken from contrasting areas of
the world.
In each case, the following should be examined:
the nature of the seismic hazard;
the impact of the event;
management of the hazard and responses to the event.
Note for teachers: Teachers please note this PowerPoint presentation refers to tsunamis but does not address them fully.
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9. OCR A2 Geography: Global issues
What are the hazards associated with earthquake and volcanic activity? Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are caused by plate tectonics and bring distinctive impacts to an area and these vary from place to place.
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have a range of environmental and social impacts on the areas affected, which create a range of human responses to the hazard. The study of an earthquake and of a volcanic eruption to illustrate the:
tectonic processes involved in creating these hazards;
scale and types of impacts (environmental, social and economic), together with the concept of primary (initial impacts – destruction, casualties, landslides, fires) and secondary impacts (including disease, infrastructure problems, resettlement);
human reaction in both the short term (emergency rescue) and long term (planning & management).
Why do the impacts on human activity of such hazards vary over time and location? The degree of impact on an area reflects its level of economic and technological development as well as the population density. Impacts can vary over time from immediate to long term. The study of contrasting examples to illustrate a:
contrast between countries at either end of the development continuum and between rural and urban areas, to compare the impacts of, and reactions to, at least two contrasting types of earth hazards;
comparison of impacts over short and long time periods for at least two contrasting types of earth hazards.
Note for teachers: This PowerPoint presentation addresses earthquakes BUT not volcanic eruptions. Teachers will need to guide students on their chosen examples and will also need to guide students to choose two contrasting types of earth hazards.
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10. OCR A2 Geography: Global issues
How can hazards be managed to reduce their impacts?
There are various ways to manage or reduce the impacts of hazards. The study of different approaches to managing earth hazards to illustrate:
the extent to which earth hazards are predictable;
the management strategies used to reduce the possible impact of a hazard;
the effectiveness of managing earth hazards.
Key Concepts:
The nature of hazards varies with location.
The nature of hazards changes over time and space.
Earth hazards consist of a variety of interdependent and interconnected activities and processes.
Physical geography and human activity are interdependent and their interaction can produce hazards.
The impact of such hazards varies over time and given location.
Populations and environments respond in a variety of ways to hazards.
The management of hazards results in opportunities and challenges.
Associated Skills:
Research into hazard events
Analysis of a variety of types of image
Map work at a variety of scales, eg hazard mapping
Statistical analysis, eg analysing patterns and severity of hazard
Use and application of GIS and other modern technology, eg forecasting of earthquakes and eruptions
Note for teachers: This PowerPoint Presentation addresses the management of one hazard - EARTHQUAKES. Teachers will need to ensure students develop a broader focus on hazards.
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11. Assessment objectives.
You will need to:
A01
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the content, concepts and processes.
A02
Analyse, interpret and evaluate geographical information, issues and viewpoints and apply understanding in unfamiliar contexts.
A03
Select and use variety of methods, skills and techniques (including the use of new technologies) to investigate questions and issues, reach conclusions and communicate findings.
Note for teachers: Teachers will want to discuss these assessment objectives with students and emphasise with them the different weightings in their specification of these AOs and the implications this will have for their research, preparation and revision.
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12. Your research and writing
Part I
Contents

13. Synoptic research unit with case studies
This unit provides flexibility in your study of geography.
You will learn subject content and develop your learning skills, particularly, selection and analytical skills.
You will study this unit for several months.*
This is a synoptic unit that stresses the interrelation of specific issues to overall themes in geography.
Note for teachers: *This PowerPoint presentation focuses on earthquakes. Teachers will need to address volcanoes and other tectonic activity.
Teachers will need to discuss with students their expectations with regard to research, sources, notes and organisation of folders or files and particularly the wisdom of keeping a hard copy folder up to date with their work.
On the Edexcel website there is an Exemplar Report for Unit 4, which the teacher may want to critique with their students drawing out the strengths and weaknesses of the report. This includes Examiner comments on the report. This exemplar report whilst on a different option to Tectonic activity may be a very useful resource for teachers to use with their students to discuss the research work, the nature of report writing (including plan of the report with a coherent structure, focus on the titles, use of key words and frequent and accurate use of geographical terminology, a wide range of case studies by scale and location, methodology of selection of resources, appropriate referencing with dates and article names, ongoing evaluation, etc.
See also the GA link on the slide “Your study, research, written notes and examination” in this section which provides very clear and helpful advice to students.
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14. Edexcel global synoptic content
Your investigation of tectonic hazards, challenges and
responses will need to highlight:
Places, people and power
and
Risks, vulnerability and patterns.
People
Power
Places
Note for teachers: Teachers may wish to emphasise places, people, power to students as underlying themes for their research/study linked to risks, vulnerability and pattern
In planning this PowerPoint presentation we have taken careful note of the requirements of the specifications of AQA. OCR and Edexcel. This is, therefore, a generic presentation. It is, of course, the responsibility of teachers to ensure that they have worked with students to fully meet the requirements of the specification for the Awarding Body they have chosen.
Source: Dunn, Cameron and Kim Adams, “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan Updates.
hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography pdf
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15. The synoptic element of each enquiry question
Distil big concepts, implications and influences of tectonic activity
and geography by looking at social, economic, political and
environmental factors. These factors help organize and evaluate
information around people, places and power.
Social – about people, quality of life, health, education and prosperity
Economic – about money, work, industry, jobs and prospects
Political – about power, different viewpoints, policy and associated decisions
Environmental – about landscape, plants, animals, water, air and resources
Source: Dunn, Cameron and Kim Adams, “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan
Updates.;
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16. Synoptic content and MEDCs and LEDCs
To compare and contrast case studies from MEDCs and LEDCs (more and
less economically developed countries), use pairs such as:
Positive and negative
Primary and secondary
Direct and indirect
Short and long term
Human and physical
Micro and macro
Further info on more and less economically developed countries – contrasts
in economic and human development, development indicators, statistics and
correlations and indices:
Source: Dunn, Cameron and Kim Adams, “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan
Updates.;
Contents

17. Your research Action for students:
Start an “Earthquakes” folder for your research and
case studies.
2. Throughout your study extract the key information
about the tectonic event and retain the findings
and maps in your folder.
Remember to add references (sources) for the work of others and to add definitions for key terms by compiling a glossary of definitions in your folder.
Note for teachers: Students will be presented with considerable information throughout this presentation. Teachers will want to emphasise the importance of students maintaining well organised folders (hard copy essential, electronic if appropriate and additionally).
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18. Case studies in this presentation
The Haiti Earthquake (2010) and Tohoku, Japan
Earthquake and Tsunami (2011) will be the main point
of comparison in your research.
Earthquakes such as Sichuan, China (2008),
L’Aquila, Italy (2009) and Van, Turkey (2011) also feature.
In this presentation exemplar slides in the introduction
and information for your research in subsequent sections
will guide you through the process, leaving the
active research and case studies to you.
Note for teachers: You will want to emphasise for students their responsibility for research and capture of information.
Contents

19. Action for students:
Label the map to show Haiti, Dominican Republic, major towns and bodies of water
Source:
Contents

20. Action for students:
Label the map to show Japan, major towns, bodies of water and neighbouring countries.
Source:
Contents

21. Your study, research, written notes and examination
Action for students:
Writing skills:
Plan and stick to your organisation
with introduction, main body and
conclusion linking back to
the question.
Apply theories, models and graphs,
for example, event profiles.
Include good definitions and sources.
Further info:
The Geographical Association’s
“A2 Examinations: Developing your skills
in extended writing”
Dunn, C. and K. Adams’ “A2 Geography Advice
for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan Updates.
Do not describe only. Be clear what the command words expect you to do:
Discuss
Evaluate
Critically examine
You will need to include:
Role of plate margins
Causes, maps and case studies
Impacts on landscape
Impacts on people
Responses and issues
Get to know key words:
Factors
Impacts
Challenges
Note for teachers: Teachers will want to spend some time discussing with students the importance of a well organised approach to research/study and highlight their expectations of students preparation, capture and use of research to prepare for the examination.
Teachers may also wish to discuss and unravel the command words so students understand and can respond to the command words.
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22. Sources
Who is the author? How does the author’s role or job such as academic, lobbyist, businessman, politician relate to the topic? Consider North Korea and Amnesty International presenting on the same issue, for example.
Is it a primary or secondary source? How reliable is it?
Does the website verify what it publishes or is it an open forum where anything can be posted? Who owns and contributes to it?
Is the information up to date?
Note for teachers: See Edexcel student guide unit 4,
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23. Question statistics
Who collected the numbers? Using what method and for what reason?
Simply because they are published doesn’t make them facts. Many are actually estimates.
Location matters. Collecting statistics in remote rural areas of developing countries or densely populated urban settlements, for example, can be difficult if they have been collected at all. A hazard or disaster event adds complexity.
Numbers can be political. There may advantages to overstating or understating numbers.
Statistics need to be collected in the same way to be compared.
Note for teachers: You may want to emphasise with students that numbers can be political: for example, the size of a certain population group (which can be connected to allocation of political representation and funds, for example) or disaster deaths (which can be first overstated for more aid and then understated to protect the tourism industry, for instance).
Teachers will want to discuss with students the importance of collection and analysis of statistics. You will need to remind students statistics need to be collected in the same way to be compared. A consistent means of data collection is also necessary to interpret historical data to produce trends: time-trend analysis.
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24. Schemata for report writing
Your report
Defining
Introducing, defining topic
Research
Research and methodology
Analysis
Analysis, application, understanding
Conclusion
Conclusion and evaluation
Quality
Quality of written expression and sourcing
Note for teachers: This is included here as preparation for the Report Edexcel students will write in advance of the examination. (Teachers may want to add in the distribution of marks for each aspect of the report).
Teachers using other Awarding Bodies will want to emphasise the requirements of their Awarding Body. I think this slide should be in students section.
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25. Humanitarian information
Médecins Sans Frontières works in and Relief Web and Alert.net report on many
emergencies, including ignored or forgotten ones.
Médecins Sans Frontières / Doctors Without Borders:
MSF is an independent international medical humanitarian organisation that
provides emergency aid in more than 60 countries to people affected
by armed conflict, epidemics, natural or man-made disasters or
exclusion from healthcare.
Reliefweb:
“ReliefWeb is…source for timely, reliable and relevant humanitarian information
and analysis…to help you make sense of humanitarian
crises worldwide.”(reliefweb.int)
Alert.net:
Humanitarian news website covering crises worldwide, including “hidden crises”
Contents

26. Exemplar slides for your research
Part I
Contents

27. Exemplar Slide on seismicity past to present: Historical seismicity in Japan
March 2011
Since 1900
The earthquake on March 11, 2011, marked with a gold star, took place around the same location as the the magnitude 7.2 earthquake on March 9, 2011, thus the earlier one was redefined as a foreshock. In the cluster, there were 3 earthquakes greater than magnitude 6 before the main shock and another 14 in the first 6 hours after. The aftershocks intensity decreased with time since the main shock and followed a predictable pattern.
: USGS
Further info on a detailed USGS poster on
“Seismicity of the Earth 1900—2007, Japan and Vicinity”
click on: K

28. Earthquake Location: Coordinates for Tohoku, Japan (2011)
130 km (80 miles) east of Sendai, Honshu, Japan and 373 km (231 miles) northeast of Tokyo, Japan.
Note for teachers: You may want to emphasise to students the importance of a well labelled map
Source: USGS
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29. Exemplar Country Profile: Japan (2011)
Island nation in East Asia in the Pacific
Ocean
Third largest economy in the world
Politically stable with world-class critical infrastructure: physical assets that serve as foundation for effective governance*, economy and civil society.
Capital: Tokyo
Population: million (UN, 2011)
Very high life expectancy at birth, one of the oldest populations in the world (CIA World Factbook)
Most structures built to resist earthquake shaking
Note for teachers: Discuss with students what to research and how to record so the information is readily available to use in their reports- this is an exemplar which may be helpful.
* Governance: security, civil service, public management, core
infrastructure, corruption and legal and regulatory reforms.
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30. Exemplar Template: Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)
Date and time: Friday, 11 March 2011 at 5:46 UTC* Location: Japan, near northeast coast of Honshu Epicentre: 130km east of Sendai Magnitude: 9.0 on Richter scale Speed of Onset: Foreshocks and rapid main shock, aftershocks Duration: Short Areal extent: Extremely large area Map: USGS summary map on following slide Plates: Pacific plate subducting under Eurasian plate. Subduction zone very seismically active. Convergent margin, fairly high convergence rate. Earthquake shallow at the Japan trench. Earthquake: 4th largest in the world since 1900 and largest in Japan since recording began 130 years ago (USGS) History of Earthquakes: Japan trench subduction zone has had 9 events 7+ on the scale since % of world’s earthquakes take place in Japan.
Risk profile: Country ranked
1st worldwide for human and
economic exposure to cyclones
and earthquakes, 1st (economic)
and 2nd (human) for tsunamis and
very high for drought, flood
and landslides (Prevention web)
Key points: Tsunami, Fujinuma
dam ruptured, Fukushima Daichii
nuclear accident.
References:
IRIS:
BBC:
Prevention web:
tistics/risk.php?iso=jpn
Note for teachers: This is an another exemplar for students.
Teachers may wish to discuss with students the information captured and recorded and agree the expectations of information to be recorded about other earthquakes and tectonic hazards.
*Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) – primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time, closely related successors to Greenwich (GMT) mean time and for most purposes synonymous with GMT. Unlike GMT, UTC is precisely scientifically defined.
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31. Annotated images: Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)
Burning oil refinery in Ichihara, Chiba Prefecture.
New York Times
Note for teachers: Throughout this PowerPoint Presentation exemplar slides are included to model for students one approach/model for researching, extracting, and recording their research. Teachers (and students) may find these exemplars helpful or may prefer to use a different approach.
Some of the burning houses swallowed by tsunami in Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture in eastern Japan.
Los Angeles Times

32. Offset ocean floor causes tsunami wavesAP
Waves crashes over Natori, Miyagi Prefecture.
Note for teachers: Teachers may want to divert at this stage to explore tsunamis more fully.
Water and debris washed away houses in Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture.
Contents
New York Times

33. Starting your case studies
PART I
Contents

34. Starting your Haiti case study
Action for students:
Using the websites on the following slides:
Develop a template similar to the Japanese exemplar slides for your section on Haiti.
2. Haiti is situated near to two tectonic plates: record for your research the names of the plates and explain how these plates caused the earthquake.
3. Draw a sketch of Haiti’s location and the two plates.
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35. Haiti’s country profile and tectonics
CIA World Factbook (
UNICEF Statistics
BBC Country Profile
HAITI TECTONICS:
“The Haiti Earthquake in Depth”
“Anatomy of a Caribbean Earthquake”
“Tectonics of the Haitian Earthquake”
BBC map:
Note for teachers:
TECTONICS: You may want students to reflect on the question: Why is the threat of a major tsunami triggered by an earthquake along the Enriquillo fault low?
PROFILE
One of the poorest nation in the Americas with development indicators comparable to the most impoverished African and Asian countries. 145th of 169 countries in the UN Human Development Index - lowest in the Western Hemisphere
More than 70% of people living on less than $US 2 / day
Unemployment was already at least 40% before the 2010 earthquake.
Poor living conditions: 86% of people in Port au Prince living in slum conditions
50% of people in Port-au-Prince had no access to latrines and only one-third has access to tap water”
High food insecurity and dependency on imports
Health care: high infant and maternal mortality
Education: low literacy rate (52.9%,); 80% of education in often poor-quality private schools, the state system generally better but far too few places
Source: CIA World fact sheet Source: “Haiti, Has Aid Helped?”
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36. USGS summary posters Action for students: USGS Summary Poster
Print out the USGS summary
posters for Japan and Haiti for
your folder.
akes/eqarchives/poster/2010/2010
112.Php
USGS Earthquake map of Haiti:
You will find multiple panels:
epicentral area
plate tectonic environment, earthquake history
generalized seismic hazard
USGS Summary Poster
Contents

37. Japan and Haiti: Key data activity (1)
Action for students:
Based on the Japan exemplar slides and your research, draw a table comparing Japan and Haiti with key information including:
GDP per capita
Population
Median population age
Population under the age of 15
High or low-income population
Population density
Urban population %
Maternal mortality rate
(deaths / 100,000 live births)
World ranking
Birth rate / 1,000 population
Death rate / 1,000 population
Availability of health care
Literacy, total population, %
2. Population pyramid: which age groups contain the largest number of people in Japan and Haiti? Does the population age structure diagram resemble a pyramid (A or B) or an inverted pyramid?
Source:
Note for teachers:
Population Pyramids, population age structure diagrams, can inform about past, present, and future population trends for a given country or for the world. They show the age distribution (in relative percentages) of a given population. The shape of the Population Pyramid shows you in what phase is a population group.
There are definite effects of population structure.
In Japan, the population is aging and declining.
In Haiti the effects of a very young age structure have been great. “The median age of the population is 20 years, and almost 70 percent of Haiti’s people are under age 30. While other countries in the region have experienced continuously decreasing fertility
rates, Haiti’s fertility decline has followed a non-linear pattern. As have many other developing countries, Haiti has experienced an intense process of urbanization. The population of the capital, Port-au-Prince, more than doubled between 1982 and 1997, and the urban population is predicted to exceed the rural population by The lack of attention to rural areas in development strategies has contributed to this intense rural-urban migratory flow....
.....the country’s very young age structure has important implications for the political stability and possible economic recovery of the country....
.....demographics can play an important role in mitigating or exacerbating a country’s prospects for development and the well-being of its people.”
Source:
Contents

38. Japan and Haiti: Key data activity(2)
In what stage do Japan and Haiti’s birth rate, death rate and availability of health care place them on the demographic transition model? K
Source: GCSE Bitesize population change and structure:
Contents

39. .
Part ii: Four SECTIONS
Contents

40. PART II - SECTION one Tectonic hazards and Causes
Tectonic activity, seismicity and tectonics
PART II - SECTION one Tectonic hazards and Causes
Contents

41. Section One Tectonic hazards and causes
This section focuses briefly on the patterns and processes of earthquakes and volcanic hazards* and how they are managed.
Note for teachers: Teachers should note that this MSF material does NOT focus on volcanic hazards, teachers will need to address these aspects.
Contents

42. Section One Tectonic hazards and causes
What are tectonic hazards and their causes?
Learning outcome
This section will guide you in identifying, examining and understanding the:
Range of tectonic hazards and their causes;
Different profiles of tectonic hazards;
Link between tectonic hazards and plate tectonics;
Variation of tectonic hazards with the type of plate margin.
Note for teachers: Teachers will want to discuss and unravel the intended learning outcomes with students to focus their research and their efforts
Contents

43. Event, hazard or disaster?
Action for students: Discuss what makes an event a hazard or disaster
based on information in the images only.
Sources:
1 Water
2 Internal displacement:
3 Haiti earthquake:
4 Guatemala’s Volcano of Fire:
5 Fault Rupture source: 1 2 3 4 5
Note to teacher: Another activity could be a CARD SORT ACTIVITY, with each of the hazards affecting Haiti or Japan written on a card for the students to classify. This could be used to place in the extent of each hazard in a continuum.
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44. Event, hazard or disaster definitions
What is a natural event in an uninhabited place becomes a hazard in a populated one.
A hazard is natural or human-made event that adversely affects human life, property or activity. A hazard involves people.
“A disaster is an occurrence disrupting the normal conditions of existence and causing a level of suffering that exceeds the capacity of adjustment of the affected community.”(WHO/EHA 2002). There is no universally agreed numerical threshold for designating a hazard as a disaster. A matter of scale, a disaster is a lot bigger than a natural hazard.
Capacity: A combination of all the strengths and resources available within a community, society or organization that can reduce the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster.
Source: UN/ISDR, Words Into Action: A Guide for Implementing the Hyogo Framework, Switzerland, 2007
Source: WHO/EHA 2002, Disasters & Emergency definitions;
Note for teachers: You may want to remind students to develop their own glossary using the definitions in purple on the slides.
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45. Perspectives on the Haiti earthquake experience
Action for students:
1. View and interact with the video on the experience of the Haiti earthquake from the perspective of a survivor, an aid worker and a journalist:
Based on the video make a mind map about why the Haiti earthquake lead to disaster. See sample mind map for guidance.
Source:
Note for teachers: Teachers may decide to use this video to set the scene for students research/study. This interactive video will prompt students to consider the need to get at the facts and to present their research and reports without bias. Teachers may note in some clips the Médecins San Frontières workers in their distinctive T shirts.
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46. What is a tectonic event?
A tectonic event is a physical occurrence resulting from the movement or deformation of the Earth’s crust.
Tectonic events are predominantly earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.
Tectonic events become tectonic hazards when they have the potential to cause loss of life and damage to property.
Not all tectonic events are hazardous.
Note for teachers: Throughout the presentation information slides have been included. Teachers will use these slides as appropriate for their students.
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47. Tectonic hazards
Tectonic activity cause a very large range of hazard events. These
are associated with the processes of earth movement and
volcanism, and they are classified into primary and secondary hazards.
Primary tectonic hazards include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
pyroclastic flow, ash fall and volcanic gases.
Secondary tectonic hazards include tsunamis, landslides and
lahars. A tsunami is a secondary hazard, because the flooding
is caused by the earthquake at sea. Tsunamis like the Asian
Tsunami (2004) are rare.
Contents

48. What is an earthquake and tsunami?
Action for students:
Watch BBC News, “Animated Guide – Earthquakes” and print out the PDF non-animated version. Retain in your research folder, as you will use it later:
2. Watch National Geographic, “Earthquake 101”:
Source:
3. Review BBC GCSE Bitesize, “What causes a Tsunami?”:
And Japan Tsunami footage with explanations
Note for teachers: Students will use the non- animated printed version shortly.
The second two sources are included as a revision and review point for students
Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1,
Tectonic activity and hazards
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49. Defining earthquakes
Earthquakes occur along fault lines and major plates lines.
The main shock in a cluster is the one with the largest magnitude.
Foreshocks occur before the main shock. Not all main shocks
have foreshocks.
The main shock is always followed by aftershocks, which are smaller than
the main shock and can continue for weeks, months or years.
Each earthquake can provide new information:
If a subsequent event is larger than the one deemed a main shock, it can be redefined as a foreshock, for example, Tohoku, Japan (2011).
Similarly, an aftershock may sometimes be reclassified as a foreshock.
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50. Foreshocks, Main shocks and aftershocks sequence
Tohoku, Japan (2011) Map:
11 March - magnitude 9.0 main shock off Tohoku followed by 166 aftershocks of magnitude 5.5 and greater until May 20.
Aftershocks follow a statistically predictable manner. In common with almost all of the largest earthquakes, this one is on a subduction zone.
Warmer colour for more recent events
Larger symbol for greater quake magnitude.
Action for students: Record in your glossary what is meant by a subduction zone . Explain why it causes 5000 earthquakes a year in Japan (one or more a day). .
Source: USGS K
Contents

51. Seismic waves Action for students: Contents
Correctly label the image:
Surface waves
Rayleigh wave
Love wave
Body waves
P waves
S waves
Elliptical motion
Answer the questions about Love, P, S and Surface waves:
Which type of seismic wave travels fastest?
Which type causes rock particles to move together and apart in the same direction?
In order to determine how far from a seismograph station an earthquake occurred, one needs to look at the difference between:
Seismic waves and elliptical motion
P & S waves
S & Love waves
P & love waves
4. Which one does not control the level of shaking:
Distance
Weather
Local Soils
Magnitude
Contents
Source: wave

52. Measuring shaking
Seismologists use a seismograph: an instrument that registers
the movement of the Earth's tectonic plates caused by seismic
waves and produces seismograms such as this USGS one:
A short wiggly line that doesn’t wiggle very much means a small earthquake, and a long wiggly line
A long wiggly line (seismic wave) that wiggles a lot
denotes a large earthquake; a short one that doesn’t
wiggle a lot a small one. The length of the wiggle
depends on the size of the fault and the size of the
wiggle by the amount of slip.
At least three seismographs are needed to triangulate
the location of an earthquake. Measurements are on the
logarithmic Richter scale from 1 – 10 with decimals.
Source:
USGS
Further info
On seismic monitors - Incorporated Research Institution for Seismology (IRIS):
On seismicity maps - USGS:
On seismograms – USGS:
on seismographs and Richter scales:

53. .
125 Global Seismographic stations, multi-use facilities, spaced worldwide, collect
data for scientific research, earthquake hazard mitigation, tsunami warning, education and the international monitoring system for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty. Source: IRIS
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54. World map of the threat of earthquake shaking
Global Seismic Hazard Program
Note for teachers: throughout this presentation it is anticipated that teachers will select and use the slides which are appropriate to meet the requirements of their specification.
Another world seismicity map -
Dark red = large earthquakes most likely
White = least likely K
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55. USGS Shake maps Haiti Japan . K
Note to teachers: USGS defines shake maps as “a product of the U.S. Geological Survey Earthquake Hazards Program in conjunction with regional seismic network operators. ShakeMap sites provide near-real-time maps of ground motion and shaking intensity following significant earthquakes. These maps are used by federal, state, and local organizations, both public and private, for post-earthquake response and recovery, public and scientific information, as well as for preparedness exercises and disaster planning.”
Mercalli scale measures how much damage is caused by earthquakes based on observations. K

56. Map of case study countries and plate margins
Action for students:
Draw an arrow to Japan, China, Haiti, Turkey and Italy on the map below and add in the
plate margins.
Note to teachers: Another activity could be to show maps of Haiti and Japan with key information to use in a map from memory exercise.
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Source: Worldatlas

57. Primary and secondary effects of earthquakes
Earthquakes effects: primary and secondary
Primary effects
happen immediately and occur as a direct result of the ground shaking like buildings collapsing.
Ground shaking
Ground shaking is most direct effect with cracks in land and structures, falling masonry and / or collapse.
animation:
Secondary effects
occur as a result of the primary effects, for example, fires due to ruptured gas mains.
Ground displacement
may not be life threatening; however, it impacts on buildings, bridges and roads.
Landslides
are movements of masses of rock or debris down a slope. Slope failure can be triggered by, for example, earth tremors. Photo:
Liquefaction
occurs when the shaking of silts, sands and gravels causes them to lose their load bearing capacity. Buildings and other structures, may thus sink into the ground.
Liquefaction Hazard Map:
Liquefaction photo:
Tsunamis
are ocean waves with extremely long wavelengths, generated by earthquake tremors.
Graph:
Note for teachers: This is an information slide –teachers may ask students to research the hazards associated with earthquakes or provide this slide to students to lay foundations for more analytical work on understanding the link between tectonic hazards and plate tectonics and also in understanding that tectonic hazards vary with the type of plate margin.
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58. Plate tectonics How do earthquakes occur?
Action for students:
Use the pdf hard copy of the earthquake animation and
add in additional information from the following sources:
Animated version of the “Earth’s Tectonic Plates”,
Dr Iain Stewart explains how plate tectonics cause earthquakes:
British Geological Survey: and
US Geological Survey (USGS):
2. Discuss these additions with a partner and compare.
Critique your partner’s additions and ask them to critique yours.
3. In light of this critique amend your explanation and retain
the document for revision and exam preparation.
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59. Tectonic plates Action for students:
Find a map of the global distribution of tectonic plates identify the convergent (destructive or collision), divergent and transform (conservative or transcurrent) plate margins.
2. Write a description of each type of margin. Include an example of each type of margin and also explain a collision plate margin with an example.
3. Compare and contrast the typical tectonic hazards experienced at one convergent and one divergent plate margin.
4. Research the two types of crust which make up the plates.
Note for teachers:
Divergent plate margin- the mid-Atlantic ridge
Convergent plate margins- the Nazca plate and the South American Plate or the Pacific and Philippines plate
Animated Plate Tectonic map on BBC Bitesize
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60. GPS: measuring plate motion
Global Positioning system (GPS) is one of various
technologies used for studying earthquakes. Receivers placed
along fault lines measures movements of the Earth's crust with
a precision of one millimetre per year.
The length of the arrow indicates the extent of the movement.
Source: UNAVCO 2000
Further info on GPS and plate motion calculators for your records: K K
This GPS Slip model of Tohoku, Japan (2011) was produced with vertical GPS data.
Source:
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61. Part II – Section Two Tectonic Hazards: Physical impacts.
Part II – Section Two Tectonic Hazards: Physical impacts
Contents

62. Section Two Tectonic hazards: physical impacts
This section introduces impacts and then
focuses on the physical impacts, such as
damage and destruction to homes
and infrastructure and change
to the landscape.
Port au Prince after the earthquake
Photo by Julie Remy/MSF
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63. Section Two Tectonic hazards: physical impacts
What impact does tectonic activity have on landscapes and why does this impact vary?
Learning outcome
By the end of this section, you should be
aware of the effects of earthquakes on the landscape.*
Note for teachers: Students will also need to acquire the following learning outcomes:
understand the impact on landscape of extrusive igneous activity
Investigated the different types of volcano and eruption
Considered the impact of intrusive igneous activity
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64. Haiti before and after the earthquake
Juvenat: February 13, 2010
Juvenat: August 3, 2009
Further info on Haiti before 2010 in Appendix
Source:
Note for teachers:
Analysis of Multiple Natural hazards in Haiti (NATHAT) A
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65. Geological records
Historic records of earthquakes can be incomplete and some countries have longer records than others.
Where there are no written records of earthquakes geological and soil maps can be used to identify past earthquake activity.
The geological record when understood can enable areas of high risk to be mapped.
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66. Event Profiles
Event profiles can be drawn for any event and help illustrate the great
variation in the nature of tectonic hazards. They are a common way
to compare and contrast different hazards. The typical earthquake
and volcanic profiles tend to differ most in terms of spatial predictability
and frequency.
This profile compares factors of
the Asian Tsunami (2004) with
the continuous eruption of
Kilauea on Hawaii since 1983.
Source: Edexcel Unit 4 Option 1 Tectonic Activity and Hazards K
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67. Event profiles Action for students: Refer to the Exemplar slide for
Japan, Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)
and construct one for Haiti Earthquake (2010). Keep in mind factors of an event profile: magnitude, speed of onset, duration, areal extent, spatial predictability and frequency.
2. Research and construct event profiles as presented on the previous slide for the Haiti (2010) and Tohoku, Japan (2011).
Further info:
For a comprehensive presentation by a geophysicist on Haiti
and Japan earthquakes click:
Note for teachers: This could be an opportunity for students to develop further their report writing skills by using the Event profiles for Haiti and Japan Tohoku to write a brief report which compares and contrasts the two hazards.
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68. Tectonic impacts Tectonic hazards can be complex with
multiple effects and impacts. Impacts can
be physical, social or economic.
Impacts can be:
Direct or indirect,
Short or long-term,
Tangible or intangible,
Negative or positive.
Note for teachers: It may be worthwhile highlighted for students to be alert to considering physical, social or economic impacts as an organising tool for their research/study and revision.
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69. Factors affecting an earthquake: Mind map exercise
Action for students:
Draw a mind map of physical factors affecting an earthquake.
Draw another for human factors.
Compare your mind map with that of a partner,do you need to make amendments, do they need to make amendments
4. Complete your map for your folder by referring to the following slides.
Note for teachers: Mind maps may be a very useful tool to help students prepare for their report writing- it can be helpful when using a mind map for reporting to number on the mind map a potential sequence for the report.
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70. Physical factors affecting the impact of a tectonic event
Distance from epicentre
Richter Scale / Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI):
the higher on the scale, the more potentially devastating
Duration of the hazard
Scale of the hazard
Frequency of the hazard
Magnitude of the hazard
Time of day
Time of year and climate
Geography of the area, accessibility
Note for teachers: When viewed as ‘slide show‘ this slide and others are animated so teachers can reveal during discussion.
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71. Human factors affecting the impact of a tectonic event
Social, political and economic conditions / level of development.
Population density: rural or urban area
Frequency and severity of hazards affecting the area
Experience from previous hazards in the area
Methods of coping with hazards
Accuracy in predicting the hazards
Effectiveness and response of hazard warning and evacuation procedures
Speed and efficiency of local, national and international emergency response teams and long-term reconstruction and development services
Coordination and perception of the services
Presence of other humanitarian crisis
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72. Severity of impacts
The hazard and the capacity of people affected to prepare for and resist it determine the extent of the damage. Damage to the environment such as deforestation can make their impact worse. So the severity of impacts depends on both:
Physical factors (attributes of nature) such as the magnitude of the event.
Human factors determining human vulnerability to natural hazards such as population density.
Action for students:
Discuss whether the impacts on places, people and power of volcanic hazards can be positive and negative, but for earthquakes only negative.
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73. Are impacts always negative?
Some economists have argued that a natural disasters can be a
brutal, but good stimulus for an economy by:
pushing short-term growth;
Helping conflict resolution and community development;
building up-to-date infrastructure and technology in place of outdated ones (in with the new, out with the old); and
focusing international attention and resources on the country.
Further info: article on “how disasters help”:
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74. Fault activity Action for students: .
1. Label the faults as Dip slip, Strike-slip and Thrust. Mark with arrows to indicate vertical or horizontal movement. .
Study the graph. Do bigger faults lead to smaller or bigger earthquakes?
Source:

75. Effects of earthquakes on landscapes
Action for students:
Research faults and draw diagrams of dip slip faults (normal, reverse and thrust), strike slip faults (left or right-lateral) and oblique slip faults. You can refer to
Example diagram
Be clear about which faults are common at divergent plate margins and which occur at convergent plate margins.
Explain how rift valleys form and give an example.
Remember: a clear, simple diagram is worth a thousand words.
Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1, Tectonic activity and hazards
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76. PART II – SECTION THREE Tectonic hazards: human impacts
Hazard Trends
Why live in tectonically active areas?
Prediction
PART II – SECTION THREE Tectonic hazards: human impacts
Contents

77. Section Three Tectonic hazards: human impacts
This section is organised around risks, vulnerability
and patterns of human impacts – social and economic.
Social impacts refer to trauma and the disruption of everyday life and communities.
Economic impacts can be damage to factories and commercial properties and disrupted transport networks.
Together with physical impacts, they determine how
places, people and power are affected.
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78. Section Three Tectonic hazard: human impacts
What impacts do tectonic hazards have on people and how do these impacts vary?
Learning outcome
By the end of this section, you should:
Understand some of the reasons why people live in tectonically active areas
Know the range of hazards associated with different types of tectonic activity*
Be familiar with the specific impacts of a range of tectonic hazards*
Be aware of trends in the frequency and impacts of tectonic hazards.
Note for teachers: *This is not addressed fully in this PowerPoint Presentation teachers will need to direct students to research further.
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79. PART II – SECTION THREE Tectonic hazards: human impacts
Hazard Trends
PART II – SECTION THREE Tectonic hazards: human impacts
Contents

80. Geophysical and hydro-meteorological graph activity.
Action for students:
Look at the two graphs and mark them as appropriate to show:
Rising trend of hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes and such
Fluctuating trend
Rapidly rising trend of flood events
Increasingly widespread drought affecting millions of people
Rare but devastating
Fluctuating trend usually linked to other hazards
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81. Geophysical versus meteorological hazards and trends
Geophysical hazard is formed by tectonic/geological processes, for example, earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis. The number of geophysical hazards has stayed fairly constant.
Hydro-meteorological hazard is formed by hydrological (floods) and atmospheric (storms and droughts) processes. They make up most of the natural hazard events and have increased in number. .
EARTHQUAKES
Magnitude
Class
Number
M ≥ 8
Great 1
M ≥ 7
Major 15
M ≥ 6
Large
134
M ≥ 5
Moderate
1,319
M ≥ 4
Small
~13,000
Source: WHO/EHA 2002, Disasters & Emergency definitions
USGS Earthquake statistics and Earthquakes and seismicity
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82. Natural hazard trends
Whilst better awareness, preparedness and technology has reduced the number of deaths due to natural hazards, the number and frequency of natural hazards and the number of affected people has gone up.
Whilst our capacity to deal with natural hazards and disasters has increased, socio-demographic, economic and technological factors has increased vulnerability further.
The destructiveness of earthquakes has increased, because populations keep rising and more and more people have moved into earthquake risk zones - especially where earthquakes have been infrequent but violent.
Buildings and infrastructure are increasingly expensive and vulnerable, and many people live in housing not been built to withstand earthquakes.
As opposed to other natural disasters, earthquakes occur without warning and even moderate ones tend to affect a widespread area.
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83. Disaster hotspots The impact of natural hazards differs
between and within countries
and regions and countries. Asia
is the most affected by
natural hazards the
Philippines, Japan, India,
Bangladesh, China, Indonesia
most hazard-prone.
Identifying a hot spot can have
major implications for development
and investment planning,
disaster preparedness and
loss prevention. Yet, long lists of
priorities can be more immediate than
risk management.
Source: White, Philip, et al, Disaster risk reduction:
a development concern, (DFID, 2004) 3.
A hazard hotspot is an area of
multiple hazard zones. In large, rapidly growing urban areas in hazard prone areas, the potential for hazards to turn into disasters is great.

84. Are Haiti and Japan disaster hotspots?
Action for students:
Using the disaster websites such as:
Prevention web for risk profile and disaster statistics:
Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, CRED ( for frequency, economic and human impact by disaster type and region:
List recent natural disasters for Japan and Haiti and discuss each countries capacity to deal with them. Consider location, tectonics, hurricane tracks, typhoons, tsunamis, population, economic development and the natural and built environment.
Compare risk rankings for Japan and Haiti.
3. Compare economic and human losses by disaster for Japan and Haiti. Try to explain why 2011 was the costliest year ever for natural disasters with Tohoku, Japan (2011) accounting for 55% of the total US$380 billion economic losses.
Note for teachers: Haiti: Earthquake in 2010, "Isaac" and “Sandy” in 2012.
Contents

85. PART II – SECTION THREE Tectonic hazards: human impacts
Why live in tectonically active areas?
PART II – SECTION THREE Tectonic hazards: human impacts
Contents

86. Why do people live in tectonically active areas?
Action for students:
Reflect on your own the reasons why people live in tectonically active areas, jot down your ideas.
2. Give examples, why do people continue to live in California, Japan or Haiti?
3. Consider: level of economic development, awareness of risks, risks versus benefits, past history of tectonic activity (magnitude, frequency, impact and dates).
4. Discuss with a partner their reasons and yours.
5. Join with another pair, discuss and record all the ideas why people live in tectonically active areas.
Note for teachers: This is a think, pair, share activity and may provide a good opportunity for teachers to observe and listen to assess students understanding.
Contents

87. Why risk living in a hazardous area?
There are far more people living
in potentially hazardous area
than you might expect.
Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1 Tectonic Activity and Hazards
Living in areas of tectonic risk?
Ignorance of the risks and / or underestimation of risk
Inertia; always lived there, roots
Nowhere else to go / lack of alternatives
Choice e.g. Economic opportunities like tourism, farming, mining, geothermal power
Note for teachers: It may be worthwhile to unravel with students each of these reasons and perhaps, if necessary, to challenge stereotypes and prejudice.
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88. Many people may not have experienced earthquakes
Note to teachers: Figure 3: Synthesis of known major and active faults in Hispaniola (black lines), number and direction of slips along these fault lines estimated by GPS (red arrows and values in mm/year) and major historical earthquakes (blue/mauve lines and yellow dotted lines, with the year they occurred. The rectangles indicate thrust earthquakes, while the single lines represent strike-slip earthquakes).
Many people may not have experienced earthquakes
Blue and mauve and yellow dotted lines show Haiti’s last earthquakes 57 and 64 years before the 2010 one. Risk is a probability: without living memory, people may underestimate the risk and consider preparing and planning less a priority. K
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89. Dregg Disaster Model Risk = Vulnerability x Hazard
Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1- tectonic activity and hazards.
White, Philip, et al, Disaster risk reduction: a development concern,
DFID, 2004, 3.
Digby et al, Geography for Edexcel, Oxford University Press.
Dregg’s model (Earthquakes Venn Diagram) shows the overlap of natural hazard and human vulnerability.
The greater the scale of a earth process or event and the more vulnerable and exposed the people, the greater the scale of the natural hazards or disaster.
“Disasters do not just happen – they result
from failures of development which
increase vulnerability to hazard events.”
e.g., rapid urban growth leading to
increased exposure to landslides,
earthquakes or fire.” (White, Philip et al 2004, 3)
Risk = Vulnerability x Hazard
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90. World Risk Index Action for students:
Looking at the Dregg’s diagram and the world risk index, what places Haiti and Japan at risk?
The world risk index launched by the UN Institute in Bonn helps define the interaction between natural hazard and vulnerability.
Contents
Source:

91. Disaster Risk Equation
People can be affected by natural disasters anywhere.
However, the risk of disaster grows as global hazards
and people’s vulnerability increases, while their capacity to
cope decreases. The Disaster Risk Formula measures
hazard vulnerability:
Factors that decrease risk include:
Effective warning and preparedness,
Better planning and building practices,
Development and insurance.
Source: FAO,
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92. Vulnerability: class-quake
describes how susceptible a population or parts of a population are to the damage of hazards, notably “the characteristics of a person or group and their situation that influence their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard.”(Wisner, Ben et al 2005, 11)
is determined by processes in the natural environment and by places, people and power.
tends to increase the lower the country’s economic development and socio-political stability because risks and vulnerability make the impact of natural hazards patterns worse.
Class-quake:
The Guatemala earthquake 1976 made headlines as a ‘class-quake’, as
it predominately affected the poor, excluded and vulnerable in slums
while the urban middle and upper classes remained relatively unaffected.
Source: Wisner, Ben, et al, At Risk: Natural hazards, peoples vulnerability and disasters, 2nd ed, (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005) 11.
Note for teachers: Teachers may wish to discuss with students if Haiti was a ‘class quake’. Students will be invited to write a report on Haiti –’a class quake’ comparing and contrasting it with the Japan (2009) earthquake in subsequent slides.
Teachers may want to organise their prompts for discussion around the underlying themes of People, Places and Power.
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93. Vulnerability and economic development
In less developed countries:
A greater proportion of the population tends to be exposed to risk given population growth, land pressure and urbanisation. Moreover, the poorest tend to be disproportionately affected, often because they have migrated to hazard zones to search for work and may live in sub-standard and cramped conditions that collapse and crush them, the biggest cause of death.
The financial resources, technical capacity, level of education and ability to cope with hazardous events also tend to be lower.
The economies also tend to be driven by growth and tend to be less resilient in dealing with the disruption of the event.
There are also more likely to be other humanitarian crises as well as other issues like weak governance and infrastructure.
Source:
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94. Impact and Economic Development
The graph illustrates how the Kobe Earthquake (1995) was a huge economic disaster,
while the Boxing Day Tsunami (2004) lead to far more deaths (like the Haiti 2010 earthquake).
Natural Disaster Cost by Year
Sources:
World Bank (2006). Hazards of Nature, Risks to Development. An IEG Evaluation of World, Bank Assistance for Natural Disasters.
The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
Humanitarian Response to Natural Disasters: A synthesis of – Norad
Graph by Robert Simmon, based on data courtesy EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database ( Université Catholique
de Louvain—Brussels, Belgium
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95. Specific hazard impacts: Human costs
The costs of tectonic hazards can be classified broadly as human or economic. Human costs include primary, secondary and tertiary casualties. Over half of disaster deaths occur in LEDCs even though only 11% of people exposed to hazards live there.
Primary casualties: People killed or injured by an earthquake or volcano. Casualties tend to be much higher in less developed countries because of:
Limited preparedness,
Less effective warning systems,
Less effective search and rescue services.
Secondary casualties: People who survive initially but are injured or die because
of insufficient resources and lack of emergency medical care especially in
less developed countries
Tertiary casualties: People with pre-existing medical conditions aggravated by
the hazard event. This includes people who become ill, or die as a result of the
post-disaster environment.
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96. Specific hazard impacts: Economic costs
There are two types of economic costs:
Direct costs: the immediate costs of repairing damage caused by the event. In the case of earthquakes this will often include demolishing buildings fractured by the shock waves and rebuilding from scratch.
Indirect costs: loss of earnings caused by disruption to working life. Increasingly, major natural hazards are causing secondary technological and industrial accidents and emergencies for example, the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant in Japan.
Contents

97. Exemplar table for your research: hazard impacts over time
Action for students: Draw a table to organise and capture your research for
each case study using the prompts in the table.
Impacts
Physical
Social
Economic
Short term
Notable examples of natural and human-built landscape destroyed. Fires due to gas pipe explosions and electrical damage? Landslides and flooding?
Numbers of killed and injured, noting those in essential service professionals like doctors and policemen injured. Lack of food and health supplies? Damage or loss of homes, transport, communications, health care facilities, energy and water supply systems?
Note tangible losses due to the direct impact of property damage like destruction to shops and trade damaged or disrupted. Also, indirect losses resulting from social economic disruption, trade impacted by loss of communication, transport and water and energy supply infrastructure. Looting?
Long term
Intangible losses like the destruction of important natural and human landmarks and fertile lands.
Put here public health problems like disease (e.g., cholera due to contaminated water and lack of hygiene). Numbers of homeless and displaced people needing shelter and rehousing. Information on indirect impacts like stress and psychological damage.
Are settlements and shops being rebuilt and, if so, to higher standards? Settlements moved? People rehoused? Is there any positive impact in the form of aid, reconstruction and grants?
Note for teachers: This template is included to prompt students in their research/study and to encourage them to record their findings using this or a similar model.
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