MEMORY.

MEMORY

WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER? (Objectives for this unit)
Essential Questions to be asked: How do we remember things? Why do we forget things? Where do we store memories? Are there different types of memories? Are there memories that last longer than others? Why? Can we have false memories? Can our imagination play tricks on us? How can we improve our memory?

Memory Memory Flashbulb Memory
persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Based in long-term memory Ex. JFK assassination; 9/11 attack

Memory Memory as Information Processing
similar to a computer write to file: putting info in (encoding) save to disk: save file as: (storage) read from disk: retrieval: (open file)

STORAGE ENCODING the processing of information into the memory system or getting information into memory Typing on a computer keyboard the information you need to keep.

STORAGE Storage: Saving information: where?
The retention of coded information over time Saving information: where? Do I need it temporarily: over a few minutes, days, months? Do I need it for years or the rest of my life? Where do I put the information when I save it?

RETRIEVAL Retrieval: The process of getting information out of memory storage When I save information, how do I get it back out when I need it? Do I remember where I put it? What if it is large pieces of information or just a single word?

Getting Information In
Encoding Effortful Automatic Automatic processing allows us to process two or more complex coding tasks simultaneously & is done without conscious awareness

Encoding Effortful Processing Rehearsal requires attention
conscious effort Rehearsal repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage

Encoding Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information Space: aware of size of room or distance from something Time: how much time has passed; how long something occurred Frequency: how often something happens well-learned information word meanings YET, we can learn automatic processing reading backwards

Storage: Memory System

Sensory memory Sensory Register
acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses. I see everything in the room, but I don’t need to pay attention to everything in the room. exists for each sensory channel: iconic memory for visual stimuli, echoic memory for auditory stimuli haptic memory for touch. Info only passes from sensory memory to short-term memory if it catches our attention. the rest is filtered out which is of no interest at a given time.

Sensory Memory Store Capacity - large holds many items at once
Duration - very brief .3 sec for visual info .2 sec for auditory info Function - holds info long enough for basic physical characteristics Receiving room of the memory system Sensory Input Memory Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory

Sperling’s Experiment 1960
Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 seconds Report as many letters as possible Subjects recall only half of the letters Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to view entire matrix? No How did Sperling know this? Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling Note: This slide and the next slide present the basic protocol for Sperling's task - mainly in text form. For instructors who prefer a more visual representation, slides 7-10 present the same protocols in a more schematic manner.

Sperling’s Experiment
Sperling showed people can see and recall ALL the letters momentarily Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after matrix disappeared tone signaled 1 row to report recall was almost perfect High Medium Low Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling Notes: This slide and the previous slide present the basic protocol for Sperling's task - mainly in text form. For instructors who prefer a more visual representation, slides 7-10 present the same protocols in a more schematic manner. Not an afterimage because Sperling showed he could present the letters to one eye and influence the memory by presenting a bright flash to the other eye. This would not have worked if the visual information was stored on the retina.

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling Notes: Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

ICONIC MEMORY Photographic memory
Eyes register an exact representation of a scene Can recall any part of it but only for a few tenths of a second You remember an entire dream; but it fades as you begin to tell it.

Sensory Memory Store Sensory Input Memory forms automatically, doesn’t need your attention or interpretation Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; attention

Short-term Memory Working Memory Store
Function - conscious processing Needs your attention! where information is actively worked on Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items) Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds) Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; memory span; 7 +/- 2 items

Short-term memory Working Memory briefly stored information
scratch-pad for temporary recall Ex: In order to understand this sentence, you need to hold in your mind the beginning of the sentence as you read the rest. Short-term memory decays rapidly

Change purse theory (Miller 1976)
Small: limited capacity 7-10 items Keeps essential info like a change purse Different sized pieces of info. Chunking of information increases short-term memory capacity and is the organization of info into meaningful units a hyphenated phone number is easier to remember than a single long number. formation of a chunk: known as closure. Diff. size chunks Interference: can cause disturbance in S-T-M retention. accounts for desire to complete tasks held in short- term memory as soon as possible.

SCHOOL

Chunking Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information expands working memory load Which is easier to remember? Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; chunking

Working Memory Store What happens if you need to keep information in working memory longer than 30 seconds? To demonstrate, memorize the following phone number (presented one digit at a time)... 8 5 7 9 1 6 3 Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory Notes: This demonstration will present one number at a time, spaced one second apart. After the first two lines of text appear, hit enter once to start the number sequence. The remaining number will appear automatically. You do not need to hit again enter once the first number appears.

857-9163 Working Memory Store What is the number?
The number lasted in your working memory longer than 30 seconds So, how were you able to remember the number? Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory

Rehearsal Mental or verbal repetition of information: aka REPETITION ROTE REHEARSAL Allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds Maintenance rehearsal Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; maintenance rehearsal Sensory Memory Working or Short-term Memory Attention Sensory Input

Maintenance Rehearsal
What happens if you can’t use maintenance rehearsal? Memory decays quickly To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number (presented one digit at a time) BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by twos (i.e., 1000, 998, 996 … etc.) Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; maintenance rehearsal Notes: This demonstration represents what occurs if students do not have the opportunity to rehearse the information. First, the sequence of numbers will appear. (Important note: instruct students before the number sequence begins that as soon as the final number is presented, they should immediately start counting backwards by seven from 1000). The slide will present one number at a time, spaced one second apart. After the first five lines of text appear, hit enter once to start the number sequence. The remaining numbers will appear automatically. You do not need to hit again enter once the first number appears. 6 2 8 5 9 4

628-5094 Working Memory Store What is the number?
Without rehearsal, memory fades Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention

Short-Term Memory Test

Peterson’s STM Task Test of memory for 3-letter nonsense syllables
Participants count backwards for a few seconds, then recall Without rehearsal, memory fades Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; maintenance rehearsal; Peterson

STORAGE SHORT TERM summary
Encoding in STM is called? How do we make room for other info and still keep needed info in STM? Info comes in to STM through which two ways?

Long Term Memory Bank

Long-term memory intended for storage of information over a long time; basically unlimited capacity Information from the working memory is transferred to it after a few seconds. Unlike in working memory, there is little decay.

Attention to important
Getting Information In to long-term memory! Encoding External events Sensory memory Short-term Long-term Sensory input Attention to important or novel information Encoding Retrieving

What Do We Encode? Semantic Encoding Acoustic Encoding Visual Encoding
encoding of meaning including meaning of words Acoustic Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words Visual Encoding encoding of picture images

Encoding

Encoding Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables Spacing Effect
TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long- term retention than massed practice

SERIAL POSITION EFFECT
Tendency to recall best the first or last items in a list TWO TYPES PRIMACY EFFECT: better recall of first few items (right after learning) RECENCY EFFECT: better recall of last few items (later after learning)

Encoding: Serial Position Effect
12 Percentage of words recalled 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Position of word in list 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 Serial Position Effect-tendency to recall best the last items in a list

Encoding Imagery Mnemonics aka. Mnemonic device mental pictures
a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding Page 351 Mnemonics aka. Mnemonic device memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Memory Aids “Peg Words”
Nun Shoe Tree Door Beehive 6. Sick 7. Heaven Gate Wine Lion’s Den

Encoding Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units
like horizontal organization often occurs automatically use of acronyms HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

Encoding We also use Hierarchies to encode
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories Encoding (automatic or effortful) Imagery (visual Encoding) Meaning (semantic Organization Chunks Hierarchies

Explicit Implicit Non-declarative

Long-term Memory Systems
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory; episodic memory; semantic memory; procedural memory; classical conditioning; priming

Explicit Memory Explicit Memory: memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” also called declarative memory

Subtypes of Explicit Memory
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; episodic memory; semantic memory

2 Types of Long-Term Explicit memory:
Episodic memory of events and experiences from this memory we can reconstruct the actual events that took place at a given point in our lives. Semantic memory: record of facts, concepts and skills that we have acquired. is derived from episodic memory: we can learn new facts or concepts from our experiences.

Explicit Memory describe the picture below using the two sub-types: semantic and episodic Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory;

Episodic Memory Memory tied to your own personal experiences Examples:
what did you have for dinner? do you like to eat caramel apples? Why are these explicit memories? Because you can actively declare your answers to these questions Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; episodic memory

Semantic Memory Memory not tied to personal events
General facts and definitions about the world Examples: who was George Washington? what is a cloud? what is the climate at the north pole? These are explicit memories because you can describe what you know about them. Unlike episodic memories, your knowledge does NOT include your personal experience i.e., You may never have been to the north pole but do know about it. Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; semantic memory

Implicit Memory Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory; classical conditioning; priming

Implicit Also known as non-declarative; retention
independent of conscious recollection aka. procedural memory Three subtypes Classical/operant Procedural Priming

Implicit Memory Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not enter consciousness Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory;

Classical Conditioning
Studied earlier Ch. 8 learning Implicit because it is automatically retrieved Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory; classical conditioning; priming

Implicit/Procedural Memory
Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses Examples: Riding a bike How to speak grammatically Tying your shoe laces Why are these procedural memories implicit? Can’t readily describe their contents try describing how to tie your shoes They are automatically retrieved when appropriate Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory

Priming Priming is influence of one memory on another
priming is implicit because it does not depend on awareness and is automatic Here is a demonstration Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Priming Demonstration
Unscramble the following words: O R S E L T E P A K T A L S TSME L O B S O M S ELAF ROSE PETAL STALK STEM BLOSSOM Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Priming Demonstration
ELAF = ? Why not respond FLEA? Because flower parts were primed (flower power) Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Priming Activation of one or more existing memories by a stimulus
Activation not a conscious decision BUT, can effect subsequent thoughts and actions Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Two Types of Priming Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming; perceptual priming

Conceptual Priming The semantic meaning of priming stimulus influences your encoding or retrieval Thought to involve activation of concepts stored in semantic memory Example: Flower power priming demonstration Does not depend on sense modality: pictures can conceptually prime sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE SHOWS Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming DEMO CONCEPTUAL PRIMING BY SHOWING THE BUNNY ON THE NEXT SLIDE AND THEN SPEAK THE WORD “HAIR” TO THE CLASS AND ASK THEM TO SPELL IT.

Priming across modalities
Look at the picture . When I say a word, write it down. Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming DEMO: SAY THE WORD “HARE’ TO YOUR CLASS AND ASK THEM TO WRITE IT DOWN. MANY WILL WRITE “HARE” ALTHOUGH “HAIR” IS MORE COMMON. Why is the uncommon response produced? PRIMING of a sound by a picture.

When I say a word, write it down

Perceptual Priming Prime enhances ability to identify a test stimulus based on its physical features Making meaning out of a given stimulus Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Perceptual Priming Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right? Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Perceptual Priming What if you were shown the following slide earlier in the lecture? Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Perceptual Priming Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right? Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Perceptual Priming

Long-term Memory Processes
There are three main activities related to long-term memory: Storage: the retention of encoded information over time Retrieval: process of getting information out of memory Deletion: forgetting information

STORAGE Keeping information in!

Long-Term Memory Store
Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

Long-Term Memory Store
Encoding – Elaborate constructive rehearsal: passing info from short term to long-term memory store Retrieval - controls flow of information from long-term to short term memory store Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

Long-Term Memory Physical Storage
Explicit Memory hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Explicit Memories Hippocampus

Implicit Memory retention independent of conscious recollection also called procedural memory Brain stem and cerebellum

Amygdala: emotional memories
Damage to amygdala would mean you couldn’t learn and remember fear

Storage: Long-Term Memory
How does storage work? Karl Lashley (1950) rats learn maze Lesioned their cortex Cut sections of their brain out Re-test memory of maze Rats could still run portions of the maze Memory not located in just one spot or area of brain Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; more learning, more synaptic growth Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and retention

Evidence for Separate Implicit/Explicit Systems
Neurophysiological evidence Patient H.M. life-threatening seizures originating in temporal lobe surgically removed portions of temporal lobe Temporal lobe includes: - hippocampus amygdala Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory; H.M.

Patient H.M. Surgery was effective in reducing seizures
BUT, had other side effects Can remember explicit memories acquired before the surgery e.g., old addresses, normal vocabulary Cannot form NEW explicit memories e.g., remembering the name of someone he met 30 minutes prior cannot name new world leaders or performers can recognize a picture of himself from before his surgery but not from after and doesn’t recognize himself in a mirror Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory; H.M.

Patient H.M. H.M. is almost normal on procedural or implicit memory tasks including priming, classical conditioning, and learning motor skills This shows that explicit memory depends upon the temporal lobes and implicit does not Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory; H.M.

Hippocampal Damage Deficits in forming new explicit memories
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory Notes: - This slide contains a video clip of a patient with hippocampal damage. Although this clip is not of patient H.M., the subject of this clip also has hippocampal damage. - To activate the clip, click on the video image.

Storing memories in the brain
Ralph Gerard 1953 Trained hamsters to turn right or left to get food Lowered their body temperature until brain’s electrical activity ceased Hamsters revived, brains became active again Would they remember which way to turn? Yes. Long term memories survived the electrical blackout.

Storage to long term Elaboration
Focus on the meaning of information to encode it into LTM don’t simply repeat items over and over tie item to other info in memory called elaborate constructive rehearsal

Long term storage Which Level is More Effective?
Elaboration leads to better recall than shallow processing Type of Processing Shallow -Acoustic Deep Shallow - Visual 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percent of words recalled

Hierarchical Organization Related items form categories Remember list better if presented in categories poorer recall if presented randomly Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization

Types of Mental Associations
Association by contiguity concepts are associated because they occur together in a person’s previous experience Association by similarity concepts with shared properties are associated

Network Model Attempt to depict structure of memory as concepts linked by associations Red Fire House Cherry Apple Rose Pear Ambulance Engine Truck Bus Car Flower Violet Hot Pot Stove Pan Pie Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization; associations; spreading activation model

Network Models Links between concepts
common properties provide basis for mental link Shorter path between two concepts = stronger association in memory Activation of a concept starts decremental spread of activity to nearby concepts Also known as the spreading-activation model Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization; associations; spreading activation model

Neural Network April prom

Are Memories Organized? Let’s put it to the test!
Demonstration: recite the days of the week recite the days of the week in alphabetical order demonstrates that long-term memory is organized not just a random jumble of information How are memories organized? Key words: memory organization

Getting Information Out!
Retrieval

Retrieval Types of information retrieval: Recall in recall, the information is reproduced from memory & needs the fewest retrieval cues Serial Recall: perfect sequential order Random Recall: all info but not in order Recognition presentation of the information provides the knowledge that the information has been seen before. lesser complexity of memory, as information is provided as a cue. M.C. test

Retrieval Relearning (savings) Priming
memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time Priming activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory brings info to conscious when prompted

Context-Dependent Memory
Improved ability to remember if tested in the same environment as the initial learning environment better recall if tested in classroom where you initially learned info than if moved to a new classroom if learning room smells of chocolate or mothballs, people will recall more info if tested in room with the same smell compared to different smell or no smell at all

Context-Dependent Effects
Compare words learned underwater vs on land Words heard underwater are best recalled underwater Words heard on land are best recalled on land key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; context-dependent effects Notes: This graph refers to a study by Duncan Godden and Alan Baddeley (1975). In this study, scuba divers listened to a list of words either while they were on land or while they were underwater. They were later asked to recall as many words as possible. Results indicate that contextual consistency (i.e. land-land or water/water) results in better performance.

Retrieval Cues 10 20 30 40 Water/ land Land/ water
10 20 30 40 Water/ land Land/ water Different contexts for hearing and recall Same contexts for hearing and recall Percentage of words recalled

Context Dependent Effects
Time of day is also important 9 6 12 3 Learn at 3 pm Perform better at 3 pm 9 6 12 3 9 6 12 3 Than 9 pm key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; context-dependent effects

Retrieval Cues State-dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state Recall improved if internal physiological or emotional state is the same during testing and initial encoding

State-Dependent Memory
Context vs State dependent Context-dependent - external, environmental factors State-dependent - internal, physiological factors key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; context-dependent effects; state-dependent effects

State-Dependent Effects
Mood-Congruent Memory -Mood or emotions also a factor tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues Bipolar depressives information learned in manic state, recall more if testing done during manic state information learned in depressed state, recall more if testing done during depressed state key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; state-dependent effects; mood congruence

State Dependent Effects
If drink during learning May recall better with drink Than without key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; state-dependent effects Notes: Example of state-dependent effect: A person who hides money while drunk may forget the location until drunk again. For this example, I usually stress that this this is not a call to get drunk before an exam in order to improve your grade. I point out that subjects who are sober at the initial time of learning and during testing do significantly better than those in an intoxicated state. But not as well as sober all the way!

Context Dependent State
Deja Vu (French)--already seen cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience The eerie feeling that "I've experienced this before."

Deletion also called Forgetting

Forgetting Theories Encoding failure Role of time Trace decay
Isolated facts Negative information Completed tasks Interference theories Retrieval failure Motivated forgetting False memories key words: forgetting; encoding; decay theories; interference theories; retrieval cues

Forgetting Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

Forgetting as Encoding Failure
Information never encoded into LTM X key words: forgetting; encoding

Encoding Failure Demonstrations
What letters accompany the number 5 on your telephone? Where is the number 0 on your calculator? Lincoln penny page 366 According to this theory, objects seen frequently, but information is never encoded into LTM key words: forgetting; encoding

Forgetting as Retrieval Failure
Not all forgetting is due to encoding failures Sometimes information IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it Don’t know path to retrieve Don’t access information regularly key words: forgetting; retrieval; long-term memory

Retrieval failure Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory External events Attention Encoding Retrieval failure leads to forgetting Retrieval Sensory memory Short-term Long-term

Role of Time : Decay Theory
Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused Time plays critical role Ability to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding Problem: Many things change with time. Something else may change and actually cause forgetting: Interference key words: forgetting; retrieval; decay theories

Trace Decay Theory “use it or lose it”

forgetting 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 Time in days since learning list Percentage of list retained when relearning Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time

Isolated Facts Most common form of forgetting Grocery lists
Locker combinations Dr. appointments Not tied to significant/emotional material Tid-bit information Witness stand

Negative information Information contrary to our internal belief structure Nonsense information “Jabberwocky” Conflicting information BLUE GREEN PINK

The Stroop Effect

Completed Tasks The “Zeigarnik effect”
Completed tasks more likely to be forgotten than incomplete tasks Completing task takes the information off of the front burner Loses meaning and attention Completed tasks; waiter in restaurant, Math problems

Interference Theories
“Memories interfering with memories” Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory Two types of interference key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories

Two Types of Interference
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories;retroactive interference; proactive interference

Retroactive Interference
When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information Example: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; retroactive interference

Retroactive Interference
Example: Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old language F- key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; retroactive interference Notes: This is similar to an upcoming slide for proactive interference. The foreign language example can be used to demonstrate both retroactive and proactive interference, depending upon how you present it. Thus, examples of both are included. However, I generally only present only one of the two examples to avoid confusion for the students. For instance, I'll use the foreign language example for retroactive interference and the parking lot example for proactive interference.

Proactive Interference
Opposite of retroactive interference When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today ? key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; proactive interference

Proactive Interference
Example: Previously learned language interferes with ability to remember newly learned language F- key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; proactive interference Notes: This is similar to the slide for retroactive interference. The foreign language example can be used to demonstrate both retroactive and proactive interference, depending upon how you present it. Thus, examples of both are included. However, I generally only present only one of the two examples to avoid confusion for the students. For instance, I'll use the foreign language example for retroactive interference and the parking lot example for proactive interference.

Review of Interference Theory
Retroactive Interference Learn A Learn B Recall A, B interferes Proactive Interference Learn A Learn B Recall B, A interferes Interference reflects competition between responses.

Hours elapsed after learning syllables
Forgetting Retroactive Interference Without interfering events, recall is better After sleep After remaining awake Hours elapsed after learning syllables 90% 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percentage of syllables recalled

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
Serial scanning Wrong prompt…. Info similar found but not right info needed Scanning information near or around needed information Will continue to scan for info until found

Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise memories Repression defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Unable to store memories
Amnesia--the loss of memory Physiological: brain damage; unable to form new memories 1. Oliver Sacks 1985: patient named Jimmy page Describe Jimmy’s case 2. How does amnesia effect explicit and implicit memory?

Hippocampus Damage Left damage: can’t remember verbal info
Right damage: can’t remember visual designs and locations Location of oldest memories Sights, sounds, smells, feels

MEMORY CONSTRUCTION

Memory Construction Misinformation Effect Source Amnesia
We filter information and fill in missing pieces Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event; sometimes happens with the questions asked by police Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

Memory Construction Recall not an exact replica of original events
Recall a construction built and rebuilt from various sources Often fit memories into existing beliefs Eyewitnesses usually see something complex just once then have to remember it Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts

Loftus Experiment Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars
Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; Loftus; misleading information

Loftus’s Results Speed estimates depended on how the question was phrased Subjects memory for broken glass also depended on the phrasing of the speed question. But this was a false memory: there was no broken glass

Memory Construction False Memory Syndrome
condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

A false memory is a memory which is a distortion of an actual experience, or a confabulation of an imagined one. confusing or mixing fragments of memory events, some may have happened at different times but are remembered as occurring together. can involve an error in source memory. treating dreams as if they were playbacks of real experiences. Can be the result of the prodding, leading, and suggestions of therapists and counselors.

1986 Nadean Cool, a nurse's aide in Wisconsin, sought therapy from a psychiatrist to help her cope with her reaction to a traumatic event experienced by her daughter. During therapy, the psychiatrist used hypnosis and other suggestive techniques to dig out buried memories of abuse that Cool had allegedly experienced. Cool became convinced that she had repressed memories of having been in a satanic cult, of eating babies, of being raped, of having sex with animals and of being forced to watch the murder of her eight-year-old friend. She came to believe that she had more than 120 personalities-children, adults, angels and even a duck. -all because Cool was told she had experienced severe childhood sexual and physical abuse. The psychiatrist also performed exorcisms on her, one of which lasted for five hours and included the sprinkling of holy water and screams for Satan to leave Cool's body. Cool finally realized that false memories had been planted, she sued the psychiatrist for malpractice. In March 1997 after five weeks of trial, her case was settled out of court for $2.4 million.

Schema Theories Schema - mental representation of an object, scene or event example: schema of a countryside may include green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc. Scripts - type of schema I could say “I was in class the other day” You would have a mental organization of a classroom script: come into class, sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc. Schemas & scripts provide framework for new information

What’s in “Store” for Memory in the Future
More of human memory will move online. Rely more on digital storehouses full of video and audio files of our lives. It'll happen because digital storage is cheap – we also realize how unreliable human memory can be. storehouses will be portable, like today's music for joggers, will provide you with help in remembering people and places.

Memory Extraction: criminal cases, eye witness, Government use
Memory Implants: sensual experiences, travel experiences, languages, top secret information Virtual memories: Rachel is given a first-person memory of a childhood she never had. Can create conflicts between real and virtual childhood if real is not deleted. Interference will occur Quasi-memories: one person's experiential memories are recorded and then implanted into a different person's head. Living an autobiography; Zorro, Jesus Body Switching: our memories in another body/ vise versa Virtual Identity: A facsimile of a human personality could be preserved within a computer program and purchased.

1. The tendency for prior learning to inhibit recall of later learning is called a. encoding failure. b. repression. c. retroactive interference. d. proactive interference. 2. Things that are heard are held as a brief __________ in the sensory register. a. echo. b. icon. c. image. d. tactile.

4. Memories outside of conscious awareness are called
3. Twenty years after graduating, a subject is able to correctly identify photographs of students she attended high school with from a larger group of strangers. To do so she has used a. recall. b. recognition. c. eidetic imagery. d. reminiscence. 4. Memories outside of conscious awareness are called a. proactive memories. b. reactive memories. c. explicit memories. d. implicit memories.

a. in the room where you studied. b. in a chemistry laboratory.
5. The image that persists for about one-half second after being seen is a(n) a. sensation. b. echo. c. icon. d. illusion. 6. Cue-dependent (or context dependent) theories of memory suggest that you would do best on your chemistry test if you could be tested a. in the room where you studied. b. in a chemistry laboratory. c. with a large group of chemistry majors. d. with students who share your interests.

7. Memories of historical facts are to __________ memory, as memories of your breakfast this morning are to __________ memory. a. episodic; procedural b. procedural; semantic c. semantic; episodic d. long-term; short-term 8. The fact that a bodily state that exists during learning can be a strong cue for later memory is known as a. eidetic imagery. b. integration. c. state-dependent learning. d. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.

9. Helen has a six-month "gap" in her memories of grade school
9. Helen has a six-month "gap" in her memories of grade school. Her "gap" corresponds to the period immediately after her father's death. Helen's memory loss is most likely accounted for by a. cue-dependent forgetting. b. repression. c. retroactive inhibition. d. decay of memory traces 10. Memories of historical facts are to __________ memory, as memories of your breakfast this morning are to __________ memory. a. episodic; procedural b. procedural; semantic c. semantic; episodic d. long-term; short-term

QUESTIONS? These are the same questions I asked at the beginning of the chapter: Can you answer them better now? How do we remember things? Why do we forget things? Where do we store memories? Are there different types of memories? Are there memories that last longer than others? Why? Can we have false memories? Can our imagination play tricks on us? How can we improve our memory?

Cognition Cognition The thinking capacities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating In order to think about things in our world we simplify them by creating Concepts Prototypes

Simplifying our Thinking
Concept A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people Ex.Chair: Ex. Flower: The development of concepts are assisted by the development of prototypes Prototype Mental image or best example of a category; helps to make quick and easy assessment of items Ex: Birds….which fits better, a robin or a penguin?

Problem Solving Algorithm Heuristic
a logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem in a step-by-step manner; slower than what is known as heuistics Heuristic A simple strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; faster than algorithm but causes more errors

Problems to Problem Solving
Confirmation Bias A tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions Fixation the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem-solving Ex. Mental set Ex. Functional fixedness

Representative Heuristic Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they represent or match a prototype; may cause to ignore other relevant information Ex. The Stranger: professor or truck driver Availability Heuristic Estimating likelihood of things based upon they availability in our memory or that quickly come to mind so we deem them common

Overconfidence The tendency to be more confident than correct; over-estimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs & judgments Framing The way an issue is posed or presented can significantly affect decisions & judgments Ex. Success rate for surgery; Drop-off prices

Belief Bias The tendency of ones’ pre-existing beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometime by making invalid conclusions seem valid and valid conclusions seems invalid Belief Perseverance Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited Ex. Capital punishment research; firefighter study

Language The most tangible or hard evidence of our thinking power is language Language Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning Lot of research completed by Chomsky

Language Development This development is gradual and moves from simple to complex; however by 4 months infants can read lips and discriminate speech sounds they prefer to look at faces in which the sounds match First stage: Babbling Stage At 3-4 mths infants spontaneously utter various sounds that are at first unrelated to household language

Language Development Over time infants begin to lost their ability to discriminate sound they never hear… -which is why it is easier to learn a second language at a young age, because we lose the ability to discriminate the unique sounds not used in our native language but in the language of others’ One-word Stage: At 1-2 years, a child begins to speak mostly in single words Usually only contain one syllable like ma or da but gradually conforms to family language

Language Development Two-Word Stage:
Begins about 2 years and is when children speak in mainly 2-word phrase Stage also known for telegraphic speech: speaking like a telegram “ go car” and using mostly nouns and verbs Use the chart on page 404 to help you remember the stages! 

With a Partner… Analyze the different theories as to how language develops…. Skinner Chomsky Cognitive neuorscientists

Impact of Language Linguistic Determinism
Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way that we think English have a lot of vocabulary words that focus on the self; Japanese have more about societal emotional terms in comparison to the West Do we refer to females as “girls” or “woman” Yet there is plenty of thinking that happens without language, aka….mental pictures, spatial thinking, visualization, etc…..

Intelligence What is it? How do we measure it?
How did intelligence testing begin? How does it impact how we view those around us?

Intelligence Tests Intelligence tests
A method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores Binet & Simon wanted to test mental age, which is the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance; average 8 year-old has a mental age of 8. Only intended to identify school children who needed help NOT to measure intelligence and label children Tracking or grouping children according to their intellectual aptitude leads to decreased self-esteem & academic achievement

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
Re-normed the test and derived what we know as the term IQ Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Mental age/ chronological age x 100 = IQ Intelligence tests no longer derive an IQ but a mental ability score that compares someone’s performance on the test to the average performance of other the same age Ultimately test scores do not just test innate ability, but their education and the culture influences within the test

What is Intelligence? Intelligence: the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations General intelligence (g): a general intelligence factor that Spearman and others believed underlies special mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test Factor Analysis: a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score Ex. Verbal and Nonverbal factors

What is Intelligence? Highly debated topic!!!
Several theories of intelligence have developed over time Basically, intelligence is an man-made construct and thus intelligence is defined by how it is measured via the components on the test that is used EX. The importance of thinking and language fits in here!! 

Theories of Intelligence
Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner Each intelligence is relatively independent of the other 7 types of intelligence Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.

Multiple Intelligences
Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, it entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking. Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related.

Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas. Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders and counsellors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives. Sternberg agreed with Gardner..but stated only 3 intelligences: Analytical, Creative, & Practical

Savant Syndrome a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as computation or drawing Ex. Rain Man This whole concept suggests that intelligence is a diverse set of distinct abilities

Emotional Intelligence
This was first called social intelligence or the know-how to comprehend and manage social situations well Emotional Intelligence The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotional People are self-aware and not overwhelmed by depression, anxiety, or anger Delay gratification for long-term goals and are not impulsive

Assessing Intelligence
Aptitude Tests A test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude; future performance *ex. career assessment, SAT, ACT, GRE Achievement Tests A test designed to assess what a person had learned; current competence * ex. school tests Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale The WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtest

Test Construction Standardization:
Defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested “standardization group” These scores typically create a normal distribution that form a normal curve which is the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average and fewer and fewer lie near the extremes; bell-shaped pattern Ex. Bell-shaped pattern is generally seen for intelligence

Normal Distribution

Test Construction Reliability
The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of score on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting Test-retest: determining reliability by retesting people with the same test or merely a different form of the test Split-half test: split the test in half and determine if the scores agree

Test Construction Validity
The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. Content validity- the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (ex. Driver’s test- specific tasks) Predictive validity- success which test predicts behavior it is designed to predict; correlation btwn test scores the criterion Criterion: behavior that a test is designed to predict

Mental Retardation Mental Retardation (intellectual disability ID)
A condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score below 70 and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound About 1% of people meet the criteria More males than females

MILD MODERATE SEVERE PROFOUND

Genetic & Environmental Influences on Intelligence
p

Group Differences in Intelligence

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