1. Modules 20 – 22
Learning Theory

2. Introduction
Learning: relatively permanent changes in behavior due to experience
Measured objectively (i.e., behavior must be observable and recordable)
Behaviorist perspective

3. Introduction—How do we learn?
Conditioning: process by which associations are learned
Two types: Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Classical Conditioning: two stimuli are associated to produce behavior
Operant conditioning: consequence is associated with the behavior
Observational Learning: learn by watching others’ behaviors

4. Classical Conditioning: Introduction
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist
Studied digestion in dogs
Discovered dogs were salivating in response to experimenter’s footsteps in anticipation of food
Called these “psychic secretions”

5. Classical Conditioning: Introduction
Classical conditioning: type of learning in which one stimulus is associated with another
Learning occurs through repeated pairings of neutral stimulus (footsteps) with natural stimulus (food)
Most basic form of learning
Also called Pavlovian Conditioning or Respondent Conditioning

6. Classical Conditioning: Important Terms
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus that triggers response
Unconditioned response (UCR): unlearned or natural response to UCS (reflex)
Conditioned stimulus (CS): neutral stimulus that comes to elicit (cause) conditioned response
Conditioned response (CR): learned response to previously neutral stimulus (CS)

7. Classical Conditioning: Paradigm
Before Conditioning
UCS → UCR
CS → No response
During Conditioning
CS + UCS → UCR
After Conditioning
CS → CR

8. Classical Conditioning: Paradigm with example
Before Conditioning
Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
Bell (CS) → No response
During Conditioning
Bell (CS) + Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
After Conditioning
Bell (CS) → Salivation (CR)
Video Clip:

9. Classical Conditioning: Examples
Fears and phobias
Food aversions (one-trial learning)
Dentist’s drill
Police sirens and lights
Others???

10. Find the UCS, UCR, CS, CR in the following:
The door to your house squeaks loudly when you open it. Soon, your dog begins wagging its tail when the door squeaks.
The nurse says, “This won’t hurt a bit,” just before stabbing you with a needle. The next time you hear “This won’t hurt,” you cringe in fear.
No animation.
You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that causes food poisoning. The next time you see a sign for that restaurant, you feel nauseated.

11. Classical Conditioning: Types (in order of best learning)
Delayed conditioning: CS precedes and overlaps presentation of UCS
Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS presented at same time (begin and end simultaneously)
Trace conditioning: CS presented and stops with gap before presentation of UCS
Backward conditioning: UCS presented before CS

12. Basic Principles of Learning
Acquisition = how is it learned
Extinction = how is it “forgotten”
Generalization = when is response also given
Discrimination = when is it given only in specific situations

13. Classical Conditioning: Acquisition
Acquisition: how is beh learned
Conditioning occurs because of repeated pairings of CS and UCS
Learn association btn CS and UCS
Learning curve increases rapidly and then levels off

14. Classical Conditioning: Factors that affect Acquisition
Order and timing of CS and UCS
Most important—critical for learning
Delayed conditioning is best
CS seems to signal UCS but needs to overlap to be associated
Intensity of CS and UCS (food aversions)
How connected are CS and UCS → how well does CS predict UCS

15. Classical Conditioning: Extinction
Extinction: elimination of learned response due to removal of UCS
Gradual process
Does not erase what is learned
Spontaneous recovery: re-emergence of extinguished response after period of time away (CR is not as intense)

16. Classical Conditioning: Extinction

17. Classical Conditioning: Generalization
Generalization: tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to CS
In Pavlov’s experiment, dog would salivate to different tones
Other examples:
Food aversions  start with one type of seafood and are associated with others
Phobias
Others ???

18. Classical Conditioning: Discrimination
Discrimination: tendency not to respond to similar stimuli, but only to original CS
In Pavlov’s experiments, dog was trained to salivate only to certain tone.
Examples
Food aversions  in some cases, may only respond to fish but will eat shellfish
Others ???

19. Classical Conditioning: Higher-Order Learning
Can CS become UCS?
Yes
Higher-order conditioning: by pairing learned CS with new stimulus, the original CS acts as the UCS
Example – dog salivates to bell and then bell is paired with light

20. Classical Conditioning: Applications
Phobias: extreme fear of specific stimulus
John Watson’s research (Little Albert)
Wanted to demonstrate behavioral explanation for phobias
Created phobia in Little Albert
Ways to treat phobias have been developed using the principles of Classical Conditioning

21. Classical Conditioning: Systematic Desensitization
Systematic Desensitization: decreases phobic response by substituting an incompatible response
Works by re-conditioning/re-learning
Process:
Client creates hierarchy of fear-producing stimuli
Learns progressive muscle relaxation
Begins with lowest stimuli on hierarchy and tries to substitute relaxation
Continue up hierarchy until actually dealing with stimulus

22. Classical Conditioning: Flooding
Flooding: fear-producing stimuli presented continuously until fear response decreases until extinguished
Uses principle of extinction to treat phobia

23. Classical Conditioning: Other applications
Advertisements
Social attitudes

24. Classical Conditioning Video Links
Frasier:
The Office:
Dog training:

25. New Major Topic: Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning involved learning through association of neutral stimulus with a stimulus that caused a reflexive response.
Operant Conditioning involves learning through the connection of a consequence with a behavior.

26. Operant Conditioning: EL Thorndike and Trial-and-Error Learning
Research
Placed cat in “puzzle box”
Cat needed to hit lever to open door to get food
With successive trials, cat would hit lever sooner
Law of effect: beh followed by satisfying outcome is stamped in or repeated, while behaviors followed by negative or no outcome are extinguished
Video clip

27. Operant Conditioning: Introduction—BF Skinner
Behaviorist
Major books: Beyond Freedom and Dignity and Walden Two
Skinner box: structured environment that allowed for control of response and outcome

28. Operant Conditioning: Introduction—Definition
Operant conditioning: process by which organism learns to behave in ways that produce desirable outcomes
Other ways to say this:
Learning to behave because of effects/results of beh
Beh influenced by consequences

29. Operant Conditioning: Paradigm
S + R → R+
S = stimulus
Something that signals that reinforcement is likely if you respond,
R = response
Specific behavior
R+ = reinforcement
Consequence of beh that increases likelihood that beh is repeated

30. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement
Reinforcement: anything that increases likelihood that beh will be repeated
Primary and secondary reinforcement (more later)
Positive and negative reinforcement (more later)

31. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement (cont’d)
Primary versus secondary reinforcement
Primary reinforcement: anything that is naturally reinforcing or automatically reduces drive or need (e.g., food, warmth, attention)
Secondary reinforcement: anything that has acquired ability to be reinforcing (e.g., money, stickers, etc.)

32. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement (cont’d)
Positive and negative reinforcement
Positive reinforcement: addition of stimulus that increases likelihood beh is repeated
Negative reinforcement: removal of stimulus that increases likelihood beh is repeated

33. Operant Conditioning: Punishment
Punishment: any stimulus that decreases likelihood that beh is repeated
Positive punishment: addition of stimulus to decrease behavior
Negative punishment: removal of stimulus to decrease behavior

34. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement and Punishment Reviewed
Increases behavior
Decreases behavior
Add stimulus to situation
Remove stimulus from situation

35. Operant Conditioning: Avoidance and Escape Learning
Escape learning: When our response to aversive stimulus (something we don’t like) removes that stimulus
Example → parents yelling at you b/c you came home late
You apologize and say it will not happen again
So, they STOP yelling at you

36. Operant Conditioning: Avoidance and Escape Learning (cont’d)
Avoidance learning: when our response prevents aversive stimulus (consequence) from occurring
Example → You come home late.
You apologize to your parents BEFORE they begin to yell at you.
They do not yell at you

37. Operant Conditioning: Schedules of reinforcement
Introduction
How often beh is reinforced has influence
Discovered by accident out of necessity
Financial concerns required Skinner not to reinforce every behavior
Led to hypothesis concerning the impact of altering how often behavior is reinforced
Continuous reinforcement: reward given for beh every single time
Partial (or intermittent) reinforcemetn: reward given part of the time
Two ways to vary how often
According to number of responses (ratio)
According to when response occurs (interval)

38. Operant Conditioning: Schedules of reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed ratio: reinforcement given after set # of responses
Response-to-reinf ratio remains constant
Tend to see burst of responses until reinforced, then see pause in response rate
Examples → CD clubs, frequent flyer miles
Variable ratio: reinforcement given after varying/changing # of responses
Constant high rate of response (WHY?)
Examples → slot machine

39. Operant Conditioning: Schedules of reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed interval: reinf. given for first response given after set time period
“Wait for it.”
Produces slow, scalloped response pattern
Learn that certain period of time must pass
Examples → Tests on every Friday
Variable interval: reinf. given for first response after varying period of time
Slow but steady response patterns
Examples → pop quizzes
Video clip

40. Operant Conditioning: Schedules of Reinforcement
Set
Changing
Number of responses
Time

41. Identify the schedule of reinforcement– Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Interval, or Variable Interval FR FI VR
VI/VR VI
Rat gets food every third time it presses the lever
Getting paid weekly no matter how much work is done
Getting paid for every ten boxes you make
Hitting a jackpot sometimes on the slot machine
Winning sometimes on the lottery you play once a day
Checking cell phone all day; sometimes getting a text
Buy eight pizzas, get the next one free
Fundraiser averages one donation for every eight houses visited
Kid has tantrum, parents sometimes give in
Repeatedly checking mail until paycheck arrives
Click to reveal question, then answer.
Instructor: on the first few items, or for students who may struggle, you could call on people to simply state whether it’s ratio or interval, or whether it’s fixed or variable. However, after #5, ask for answers stating the whole term such as “fixed interval.”
Explanations for selected items:
#5. If you play once a day, then the ratio (percentage of behaviors rewarded) and the interval (percentage of days rewarded) are the same, so both answers are correct.
#6. The reward for checking for messages is a function of time, not a function of how often you check. This goes for #10 as well, but paychecks are on a fixed interval, while text messages come in variable intervals.
#8. The word “average” is crucial: donations can vary tremendously, so the average is no guarantee of a fixed ratio of donations every eighth house.

42. Operant Conditioning: Principles of Learning
Acquisition
Shaping: reinforce successive approximations of desired beh
Reinforce initially for getting close
Video clips
Teaching pigeon to play ping pong
Dog agility training
Fred

43. Operant Conditioning: Principles of Learning
Acquisition (cont’d)
Effect of schedule of reinforcement on acquisition
Quickest learning → continuous reinforcement (every beh)
Strongest overall response → variable (partial reinforcement) schedules
Reinforcement versus punishment
Reinforcement works best
Reinf demonstrates correct response

44. Operant Conditioning: Principles of Learning (cont’d)
Extinction: elimination of learned response b/c it is not longer reinforced
Extinction happens most quickly in fixed ratio schedule of reinf
Extinction < likely with variable schedules—WHY?
Partial reinforcement is best to avoid extinction
Spontaneous recovery: return of extinguished response after rest period (you never forget how to ride a bike)

45. Operant Conditioning: Principles of Learning (cont’d)
Generalization: learning to respond to similar stimuli
Example → studying in Psych leads to good grades, so now you study in other classes
Discrimination: learning to respond differently to similar stimuli
Example → how you act in one class versus another

46. Operant Conditioning: Applications
Behavior Modification/Behavior change
Behavior modification: use of operant conditioning principles to change or modify beh
Token economy
Examples → Villa Maria’s behavior mod program
Video clip: Big Bang Theory
Video Clip: Cheers Shock Therapy
Depression
Martin Seligman’s research
Learned helplessness: ind learns that response is not connected to outcome
So, they stop responding
Superstitions
Others
Video

47. Operant Conditioning Videos
Intro:
Shaping:
Schedules of Reinforcement:

48. Contrasting Types of Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Basic Idea
Associating events/stimuli with each other
Associating chosen behaviors with resulting events
Response
Involuntary, automatic reactions such as salivating
Voluntary actions “operating” on our environment
Acquisition
NS linked to US by repeatedly presenting NS before US
Behavior is associated with punishment or reinforcement
Extinction
CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone
Target behavior decreases when reinforcement stops
Spontaneous Recovery
Extinguished CR starts again after a rest period (no CS)
Extinguished response starts again after a rest (no reward)
Generalization
When CR is triggered by stimuli similar to the CS
Response behavior similar to the reinforced behavior.
Discrimination
Distinguishing between a CS and NS not linked to U.S.
Distinguishing what will get reinforced and what will not
Organism associates events.
No animation.

49. New Major Topic: Cognitive Factors in Learning
Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning => ind must experience conditioning directly
Social Learning Theory (subtopic)
Cognitive Maps (subtopic)

50. Social Learning Theory: Introduction
Albert Bandura
Bobo Doll studies
Children observed live model hitting bobo clown doll
After observing this, they were given opportunity to play in the room with bobo doll
Children engaged in similar behavior
Even when they had witnessed aggression against a live clown

51. Social Learning Theory
Observational Learning: occurs when individual’s beh changes after viewing another ind engage in specific beh

52. Social Learning Theory: Four Important Processes
Attention (first)
Must pay attention to beh when it is modeled
Characteristics of model are important
Similar in age, gender, race, etc.
Also if considered prestigious, competent, etc.
Retention (second)
Must remember behavior
Involves use of imagery and language

53. Social Learning Theory: Four Important Processes
Reproduction (third)
Must be capable (intellectually and physically) of reproducing beh
Our ability to imitate improves with practice → even when just imagining ourselves engaging in beh

54. Social Learning Theory: Four Important Processes
Motivation (fourth)
Observer performs beh when motivated to perform it
Motivation comes from presence or absence of reinforcement or punishment
Motivation
Past reinforcement → they have been rewarded
Promised reinforcement → they believe they will be rewarded
Vicarious reinforcement → they observed another being rewarded

55. Social Learning Theory
Distinction between acquiring behavior and performing behavior
Attention and Retention → acquire beh
Reproduction and Motivation → perform
Reinforcement causes us to demonstrate what we have learned
Operant conditioning => we must experience reinforcement directly to learn
Observation Learning => can learn without direct reinforcement
Bobo Doll Video

56. Cognitive Factors in Learning: New topic—Cognitive Maps
Edward Tolman
Cognitive map: mental picture of location in space
Research
Placed rat in maze and allowed it to explore (no reinforcement)
When reintroduced to maze and food placed at end, rats learned correct route more quickly
When shortest route blocked, would take next shorted route

57. Cognitive Maps (cont’d)
Latent learning: learning that occurs but is only exhibited when there is opportunity for reinforcement
Beh only given when motivated by possibility of reinforcement
Example → when preparing for test

58. Learning videos Classical conditioning (marines)
Operant conditioning (marines)
Observational learning