1. Diagnostic features of PHOBIAS 1.Intense, persistent, irrational fear a particular object, event or situation. 2.Response is disproportionate and leads to avoidance of phobic object, event or situation. 3.Fear is serve enough to interfere with everyday life. Condition may or may not be accompanied by PANIC ATTACKS

2. Types of PHOBIAS SPECIFIC PHOBIAS, of animals, events (flying), bodily (blood), situations (enclosed places). SOCIAL PHOBIAS, of social situations, public speaking, parties, meeting new people. AGORAPHOBIA, of public crowded places (not open spaces), of leaving safety of home All phobias are more common in women than men, in particular Agoraphobia. Social Phobia is most prevalent in adolescence and Agoraphobia in middle age.

3. Biological explanations of PHOBIAS - Evolution The Theory - Biological Preparedness Seligman (1971) Fear of harmful animals and situations would provide an evolutionary advantage and therefore be passed on by natural selection. The Evidence – Most people rate as most fearful those animals which move unpredictably and are slimy. Cook & Mineka (1990) found it easier to condition monkeys to fear toy snakes than cuddly teddies. Ohman (1996) found it easier to condition humans to fear snakes rather than flowers.

4. Behavioural explanations of PHOBIAS The Theory – Watson (1920) claimed that most emotional responses including fear of objects are learnt by C.C. The Evidence – He demonstrated a “rat phobia” in little Albert by pairing a loud bang (UCS) with a white rat (CS) the fear response was generalised to similar stimuli – ?? Evaluation – Does not show that “real life” phobias happen this way. DiNardo (1988) found over half of “dog phobic's” could recall being bitten (but what about the rest?) but over half of those who reported been bitten did not go onto develop a phobia of dogs. 1 – Classical Conditioning

5. Behavioural explanations of PHOBIAS Mowrer (1947) the original learnt fear is maintained by operant conditioning. The relief felt by avoiding the phobic object is reinforced by “avoidance learning”. The Evidence – DiNardo’s findings that more than half of those people bitten did not develop a phobia of dogs. Evaluation – Could explain specific phobias but does not work so well with Agoraphobia & Social Phobia. Also difficult to explain cases when there is no history of contact with the phobic object. (eg: DiNardo’s participants who had not been bitten. 2 – The Two Process Theory

6. Psychodynamic explanations of PHOBIAS Freud explained phobias using his idea of Ego Defence mechanisms. Anxiety provoking thoughts or desires coming from the ID are REPRESSED into the unconscious where the anxiety is DISPLACED onto another neutral object which becomes the subject of the phobia. In the case of Little Hans the ID’s desire was to kill his father (Oedipus Complex) and the fear of castration was displaced onto horses - the link was big “widdlers”! Hans phobia was only resolved when he had overcome his Oedipus complex.

7. Psychodynamic explanations of PHOBIAS evaluation Freudian interpretations of snake or spider phobias suggest displacement from an unconscious fear of sexual gentitalia. However most people with these phobias seem to have a normal sex life. Using Little Hans as evidence for this theory has many flaws- not least that other approaches can offer alternative, simpler explanations for Hans phobia. (eg: Behaviourist) The best evidence comes from therapeutic case studies were the interpretation of the symptoms makes sense in the wider picture of the individual’s problems and their avoidance of conflicts in their lives.

8. O.C.D. - Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Symptoms & Diagnosis Obsessions – persistent, recurring, unwanted cognitions, usually unrealistic or irrational. eg – contamination by germs Compulsions – repetitive, ritualistic behaviours that reduce the anxiety associated with the obsessive thoughts. eg: repetitive hand washing / cleaning

9. O.C.D. – Behavioural Explanations Two Process Theory (Mowrer) 1. Classical Conditioning - A specific behaviour becomes associated with an event (eg; dirt - illness / shirt – winning). Evidence - If compulsive behaviour is prevented then initially anxiety increases but reduces over time. This is used as a basis for behaviour therapy (eg: gradual exposure to dirt.) 2. Operant Conditioning - Repeating ritual behaviour leads to a reduction in anxiety which gives positive reinforcement. Evaluation - Useful in explaining how OCD is maintained but not how obsessions arise in the first place. Also used to explain superstitious behaviour.

10. O.C.D. – Psychodynamic Explanations Fixation at Anal Stage (Freud) Unconscious Conflict – between the Id and the Ego lead to the obsessive thoughts and compulsive actions. Frued belived that this occurs in the Anal stage of development, when potty training takes place. The ego defends itself by REACTION FORMATION – ie: over- reacting in the opposite direction. A child’s desire to be messy is replaced by obsessive cleanliness and a fear of dirt. Evaluation - No empirical evidence apart from Freud's own case studies – Rat Man. There may be a childhood link with OCD but the anal connection has little support.

11. Behavioural Treatments for Anxiety Disorders 2 Systematic Desensitisation – Wolpe (1958) for phobias, fears are ranked in an anxiety hierarchy, patient learns to relax and either imagine or approach each in turn. Effective for specific phobias, but can take many sessions. Used with ERP for OCD reduces compulsions. Assumes can not experience two emotions at same time, CR is re-learnt so that CS is associated with relaxation not fear. Uses positive reinforcement to reverse avoidance learning. Evaluation: Again there is a Cognitive element which could also explain why it works. Less effective with Social phobias and the obsessions in OCD. Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) uses VR to give more control and reality to the experience.

12. Psychodynamic Treatment for A.D.s Psychoanalysis – Developed by Freud aims to strengthen the ego is its battle with the Id and the super-ego. The therapists role is to help the adult client understand the origins their feelings in their childhood. This involves an emotional release “catharsis”. This is done by revealing the contents of the unconscious using techniques like Free Association & Dream Analysis. Evaluation: It is expensive and can take years. Clients may start and stop therapy and it can throw up other (deeper?) issues which makes it difficult to measure effectiveness. Criticised for “interpretation bias”. Counselling (humanistic) is now days more likely to be recommended often alongside other therapies.