1. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Биологические макромолекулы  Белки  Углеводы  Липиды  Нуклеиновые кислоты

2. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Organic Compounds  Molecules unique to living systems contain carbon and hence are organic compounds  They include:  Carbohydrates  Lipids  Proteins  Nucleic Acids

3. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Carbohydrates  Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen  Their major function is to supply a source of cellular food  Examples:  Monosaccharides or simple sugars Figure 2.14a

4. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Carbohydrates  Disaccharides or double sugars Figure 2.14b PLAY Disaccharides

5. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Carbohydrates  Polysaccharides or polymers of simple sugars Figure 2.14c PLAY Polysaccharides

6. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lipids  Contain C, H, and O, but the proportion of oxygen in lipids is less than in carbohydrates  Examples:  Neutral fats or triglycerides  Phospholipids  Steroids  Eicosanoids PLAY Fats

7. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)  Composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule Figure 2.15a

8. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Other Lipids  Phospholipids – modified triglycerides with two fatty acid groups and a phosphorus group Figure 2.15b

9. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Other Lipids  Steroids – flat molecules with four interlocking hydrocarbon rings  Eicosanoids – 20-carbon fatty acids found in cell membranes Figure 2.15c

10. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Representative Lipids Found in the Body  Neutral fats – found in subcutaneous tissue and around organs  Phospholipids – chief component of cell membranes  Steroids – cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones

11. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Representative Lipids Found in the Body  Fat-soluble vitamins – vitamins A, E, and K  Eicosanoids – prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes  Lipoproteins – transport fatty acids and cholesterol in the bloodstream

12. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Amino Acids  Building blocks of protein, containing an amino group and a carboxyl group  Amino group NH 2  Carboxyl groups COOH

13. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Amino Acids Figure 2.16a–c

14. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Amino Acids Figure 2.16d, e

15. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein  Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17

16. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein  Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Amino acid Dehydration synthesis Hydrolysis Dipeptide Peptide bond +N H H C R H O N H H C R CC H O H2OH2O H2OH2O N H H C R C H O N H C R C H O OH

17. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein  Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Amino acid +N H H C R H O N H H C R CC H O OH

18. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein  Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Amino acid Dehydration synthesis +N H H C R H O N H H C R CC H O H2OH2O OH

19. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein  Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Amino acid Dehydration synthesis Dipeptide Peptide bond +N H H C R H O N H H C R CC H O H2OH2O N H H C R C H O N H C R C H O OH

20. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein  Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Dipeptide Peptide bond N H H C R C H O N H C R C H O OH

21. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein  Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Hydrolysis Dipeptide Peptide bond H2OH2O N H H C R C H O N H C R C H O OH

22. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein  Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Amino acid Hydrolysis Dipeptide Peptide bond +N H H C R H O N H H C R CC H O H2OH2O N H H C R C H O N H C R C H O OH

23. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein  Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds Figure 2.17 Amino acid Dehydration synthesis Hydrolysis Dipeptide Peptide bond +N H H C R H O N H H C R CC H O H2OH2O H2OH2O N H H C R C H O N H C R C H O OH

24. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Levels of Proteins  Primary – amino acid sequence  Secondary – alpha helices or beta pleated sheets PLAY Chemistry of Life: Proteins: Secondary Structure PLAY Chemistry of Life: Proteins: Primary Structure PLAY Chemistry of Life: Introduction to Protein Structure

25. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Levels of Proteins  Tertiary – superimposed folding of secondary structures  Quaternary – polypeptide chains linked together in a specific manner PLAY Chemistry of Life: Proteins: Quaternary Structure PLAY Chemistry of Life: Proteins: Tertiary Structure

26. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Levels of Proteins Figure 2.18a–c

27. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Levels of Proteins Figure 2.18b,d,e

28. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibrous and Globular Proteins  Fibrous proteins  Extended and strand-like proteins  Examples: keratin, elastin, collagen, and certain contractile fibers

29. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibrous and Globular Proteins  Globular proteins  Compact, spherical proteins with tertiary and quaternary structures  Examples: antibodies, hormones, and enzymes

30. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Denuaturation  Reversible unfolding of proteins due to drops in pH and/or increased temperature Figure 2.19a

31. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein Denuaturation  Irreversibly denatured proteins cannot refold and are formed by extreme pH or temperature changes Figure 2.19b

32. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Molecular Chaperones (Chaperonins)  Help other proteins to achieve their functional three-dimensional shape  Maintain folding integrity  Assist in translocation of proteins across membranes  Promote the breakdown of damaged or denatured proteins

33. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Characteristics of Enzymes  Most are globular proteins that act as biological catalysts  Holoenzymes consist of an apoenzyme (protein) and a cofactor (usually an ion)  Enzymes are chemically specific

34. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Characteristics of Enzymes  Frequently named for the type of reaction they catalyze  Enzyme names usually end in -ase  Lower activation energy

35. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Characteristics of Enzymes Figure 2.20

36. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Mechanism of Enzyme Action  Enzyme binds with substrate  Product is formed at a lower activation energy  Product is released PLAY How Enzymes Work

37. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21 Active site Amino acids Enzyme (E) Enzyme-substrate complex (E-S) Internal rearrangements leading to catalysis Dipeptide product (P) Free enzyme (E) Substrates (S) Peptide bond H2OH2O +

38. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21 Active site Amino acids Enzyme (E) Enzyme-substrate complex (E-S) Substrates (S) H2OH2O +

39. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21 Active site Amino acids Enzyme (E) Enzyme-substrate complex (E-S) Internal rearrangements leading to catalysis Substrates (S) H2OH2O +

40. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21 Active site Amino acids Enzyme (E) Enzyme-substrate complex (E-S) Internal rearrangements leading to catalysis Dipeptide product (P) Free enzyme (E) Substrates (S) Peptide bond H2OH2O +

41. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nucleic Acids  Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus  Their structural unit, the nucleotide, is composed of N-containing base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group

42. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nucleic Acids  Five nitrogen bases contribute to nucleotide structure – adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U)  Two major classes – DNA and RNA

43. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)  Double-stranded helical molecule found in the nucleus of the cell  Replicates itself before the cell divides, ensuring genetic continuity  Provides instructions for protein synthesis

44. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structure of DNA Figure 2.22a

45. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structure of DNA Figure 2.22b

46. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)  Single-stranded molecule found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm of a cell  Uses the nitrogenous base uracil instead of thymine  Three varieties of RNA: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA

47. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)  Source of immediately usable energy for the cell  Adenine-containing RNA nucleotide with three phosphate groups

48. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Figure 2.23

49. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Solute Solute transported Contracted smooth muscle cell Product made Relaxed smooth muscle cell Reactants Membrane protein P PiPi ATP PXX Y Y + (a) Transport work (b) Mechanical work (c) Chemical work PiPi PiPi + ADP

50. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Solute Membrane protein P ATP (a) Transport work

51. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Solute Solute transported Membrane protein P PiPi ATP (a) Transport work PiPi + ADP

52. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Relaxed smooth muscle cell ATP (b) Mechanical work

53. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Contracted smooth muscle cell Relaxed smooth muscle cell ATP (b) Mechanical work PiPi + ADP

54. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Reactants ATP PX Y+ (c) Chemical work

55. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Product madeReactants ATP PXX Y Y + (c) Chemical work PiPi PiPi + ADP

56. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24 Solute Solute transported Contracted smooth muscle cell Product made Relaxed smooth muscle cell Reactants Membrane protein P PiPi ATP PXX Y Y + (a) Transport work (b) Mechanical work (c) Chemical work PiPi PiPi + ADP

57. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  МЕТАБОЛИЗМ

58. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Catabolism provides the building blocks and energy for anabolism. Figure 5.1

59. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  A metabolic pathway is a sequence of enzymatically catalyzed chemical reactions in a cell.  Metabolic pathways are determined by enzymes.  Enzymes are encoded by genes. PLAY Animation: Metabolic Pathways (Overview)

60. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Oxidation-Reduction  Oxidation is the removal of electrons.  Reduction is the gain of electrons.  Redox reaction is an oxidation reaction paired with a reduction reaction. Figure 5.9

61. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Oxidation-Reduction  In biological systems, the electrons are often associated with hydrogen atoms. Biological oxidations are often dehydrogenations. Figure 5.10

62. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Generation of ATP  ATP is generated by the phosphorylation of ADP.

63. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Generation of ATP  Substrate-level phosphorylation is the transfer of a high-energy PO 4 – to ADP.

64. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Generation of ATP  Energy released from the transfer of electrons (oxidation) of one compound to another (reduction) is used to generate ATP by chemiosmosis.

65. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Generation of ATP  Light causes chlorophyll to give up electrons. Energy released from the transfer of electrons (oxidation) of chlorophyll through a system of carrier molecules is used to generate ATP.