1. Unit 3 – Chapter 3

2. The capacity do to work or to transfer heat Kinetic – energy of motion Heat: movement of particles w/i a given substance Electromagnetic: moves in the form of a wave as a result in changes in electric and magnetic fields Potential – stored energy Water in a reservoir behind a dam, the chemical energy stored in carbon atoms of fossil fuels, food

3. 99% of energy on earth comes from the sun Wind, hydropower, biomass are all still forms of solar power 1% comes from commercial energy (locally from burning coal) The quality of the energy is important High quality = high capacity to do useful work Low quality = little capacity to do work

4. 1 st Law aka Law of conservation of energy: whenever energy is converted from one form to another, no energy is created or destroyed. 2 nd Law: whenever energy is converted from one form to another in a physical or chemical change, we end up with lower-quality or less usable energy than we started with.

5. Set of components that function and interact in some regular way (Human body, rivers, the economy) Key components Inputs Flows or throughputs Outputs

6. Feedback is any process that increases or decreases a change to a system Feedback loop – occurs when an output of matter, energy, or information is fed back into the system as an input and leads to changes in that system

7. Negative Feedback loops Causes a system to change in the opposite direction Almost all human body feedback loops Thermostats Recycling of aluminum Positive Feedback loops causes a system to change further in the same direction Only two in the human body Great concern in environmental systems (polar ice) Deforestation = erosion & nutrient loss= vegetation loss = erosion & nutrient loss = more vegetation loss

8. The movement of elements and compounds through each component of the ecosystem or biosphere including the soil, rock, air, and water. Five major cycles Water (hydrologic) Carbon Nitrogen Sulfur Phosphorus Human activities alter these biogeochemical cycles. When nutrients are stored in the atmosphere, ocean, or underground deposits, they are said to be in reservoirs.

9. Polar – universal solvent Hydrogen bonding – holds water molecules together High boiling point Can store a large amount of heat without a large change in its own temperature Water filters out UV radiation that may be harmful to aquatic organisms, yet transparent which allows photosynthesis Surface tension – capillary action (attraction b/w water molecules) Expands when frozen, which means ice freezes on the top of rivers or lakes rather than throughout which protects aquatic life within

10. Collects, purifies, and distributes the earth’s fixed supply of water (ecosystem service) Evaporation acts as a natural distillation process that removes impurities from the water Water flowing through streams, lakes, and underground aquifers are naturally filtered and partially purified by chemical and biological processes (primarily decomposer bacteria) as long as the system is not overloaded Precipitation delivers partially distilled water to organisms Powered by the sun Transports nutrients within and between ecosystems due to the polarity of water and its property as the universal solvent

11. Evaporation: liquid to gas that is held in the atmosphere Comes from soil, bodies of water such as lakes and oceans, and transpiration Precipitation: gravity enables water to fall back to the earth’s surface in the form of rain, snow, sleet, and dew Most precipitation becomes surface runoff which flows back into streams, rivers, and eventually the ocean Some soaks into the soil and is used by plants Some evaporates again Some is stored long-term as glaciers Some seeps through permeable rock formations to underground aquifers where it is stored as groundwater Transpiration: plants lose water through their leaves

12. 1.Withdrawal of large quantities of freshwater from streams, lakes, and aquifers at rates faster than nature can replace it. 2.Clear vegetation for agriculture, mining, roads, and other forms of development. Then we cover much of the land with concrete, asphalt, and buildings, which increases runoff and decreases the amount of water than sinks into the soil to replenish groundwater supplies, increases topsoil erosion, and increases the risk of flooding.

13. 3.Destruction of wetlands for farming and urban development leads to increased flooding. Wetlands provide natural flood control (ecosystem service) by absorbing the overflow of water.

14. Write down the terms located in the top left corner of the animation box as you listen and watch the following animation

15. Fig. 3-16, p. 67 Condensation Ice and snow Transpiration from plants Precipitatio n to land Evaporation of surface water Evaporation from ocean Runoff Lakes and reservoirs Precipitatio n to ocean Runoff Increased runoff on land covered with crops, buildings and pavement Infiltration and percolation into aquifer Increased runoff from cutting forests and filling wetlands Runoff Groundwater in aquifers Overpumping of aquifers Runoff Water pollution Ocean Natural process Natural reservoir Human impacts Natural pathway Pathway affected by human activities

21. Carbon is the basic building block of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and DNA. The circulation of carbon containing compounds throughout the biosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere make up the carbon cycle. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) gas is the most important component of the carbon cycle. Changes in CO 2 levels from natural or man- made causes affect the earth’s climate Regulates the atmospheric temperature Increased levels = higher temperature Decreased levels = lower temperature

22. Producers in both terrestrial and aquatic habitats remove CO 2 from the atmosphere by utilizing it during the photosynthesis process converting CO 2 into glucose Oxygen-consuming producers, consumers, and decomposers then carry out aerobic respiration which is the reverse of photosynthesis and breaks the glucose down into CO 2 for reuse by producers

23. Producers are necessary to remove carbon from the atmosphere; consumers and decomposers are needed to return carbon to the atmosphere. Photosynthesis 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + solar energy  C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 Aerobic Respiration C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2  6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + energy

25. Some carbon atoms are decomposed on land and are then returned immediately to the atmosphere. In aquatic systems, organisms that are decomposed then form insoluble carbonates that sink to the bottom of the ocean, where they are stored for very long periods of time. The largest deposit of carbon is located in ocean sediments..

26. Production of fossil fuels Eventually over extremely long periods of time, buried deposits of organic material are compressed b/w layers of sediment and fossil fuels are forms such as coal, oil, and natural gas Fossil fuels are reservoirs of carbon until such time as they are extracted and then burned, which released carbon dioxide into the atmosphere once again. Fossil fuels are non-renewable

27. 1.Adding large amounts of CO 2 by burning fossil fuels (using fossil fuels faster than they can be replaced) 2.Deforestation removes trees which provide the natural service of absorbing and storing carbon (ecosystem service) at a faster rate than they can be replaced 3.Altering both the rate of energy flow and the cycling of nutrients within the carbon cycle

28. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), and other greenhouse gases are likely to warm the atmosphere by enhancing the planets natural greenhouse effect and thus change the earth’s climate during this century.

29. Carbon Cycle Animation

38. Our atmosphere serves as the largest reservoir for nitrogen is the atmosphere 78% of our atmosphere is diatomic nitrogen N 2 Component of nucleic acids, proteins, and DNA Diatomic nitrogen (N 2 ) can’t be used directly by plants and animals – it must be processed into usable forms

39. Lightning takes place in the atmosphere Diatomic molecules are broken apart by the energy of the lightning This allows individual nitrogen atoms to combine with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides These nitrates eventually return to earth during rain events

40. Specialized bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue- green algae) combine N 2 gas with hydrogen to form ammonia (NH 3 ) The bacteria use some ammonia as nutrients and convert it into a waste product – ammonium ions (NH 4 + ) NH 3 and NH 4 + not taken up by plants immediately converted to nitrate ions (NO 3 - ) through the process of nitrification Plants easily absorb NO 3 - ions where the ions are incorporated into amino acids, nucleic acids

41. Animals cannot use any of the atmospheric nitrogen, nor the nitrogen found directly in the soil, therefore they must get their nitrogen from the plants they consume, or from the plant- eating animals they consume Decomposers and detritivores also get their nitrogen needs from consuming organisms that contain nitrogen (plants or animals)

42. Plants and animals return nitrogen-rich organic compounds to the environment as waste, as well as cast-off particles of skin, leaves, hair or when they die and are decomposed or scavenged. Ammonification – decomposer bacteria convert detritus into simple forms of nitrogen compounds such as NH 3 and NH 4 + Denitrification – specialized bacteria in swamps and bottom sediments convert NH 3 and NH 4 + back into nitrate ions (NO 3 - ) and then into nitrogen gas (N 2 ) or nitrous oxide gas (N 2 O) These gases return to the atmosphere

43. 1.We add large quantities to nitric oxide (NO) to the atmosphere from the combustion of fuel at high temperature. This turns into nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) in the atmosphere which combines with water to form nitric acid (HNO 3 ) 2.We add nitrous oxide (N 2 O) to the atmosphere through the action of anaerobic bacteria on fertilizer (both commercial and animal manure) spread for agricultural purposes 3.We release large quantities of nitrogen through deforestation, destruction of grasslands and wetlands.

44. 4.Agricultural runoff contributes large amounts of nitrates directly into streams, rivers, and lakes, which leads to algae blooms (overgrowth) 5.Harvesting of nitrogen rich crops, withdraws nitrogen compounds from the soil; irrigation of croplands leads to nitrogen poor soil b/c it washes nitrates out of the soil; burning and clearing grasslands and forests for agriculture lead to nitrogen loss

45. Mississippi River Sedimentation plume from river runoff

47. Since 1950 we have doubled the annual release of nitrogen into the atmosphere The amount is expected to double again by 2050 Nitrogen overload is a serious problem in both aquatic and atmospheric regions.

48. Nitrogen Cycle Animation

53. Only occurs in the terrestrial and aquatic regions – not in the atmosphere Primary component - phosphate ions (PO 4 3- ) Primary reservoirs: terrestrial rock formations and ocean sediments (floor of ocean) Slow compared to Carbon, Nitrogen, and Water cycles

54. Phosphates can leave the cycle for long periods of time when they are washed into the ocean and then stored in bottom sediment for millions of years Uplifting movements then expose the rock formations for erosion once again

55. Water flows over rock which erodes inorganic phosphate containing compounds and carries them into soil, where they are absorbed by plants Phosphate ions can also be transferred through food webs from producers to consumers to decomposers and detritivores Important for nucleic acids and production of ATP and ADP; production and maintenance of bones and teeth

56. Most soils are phosphate poor Acts as a limiting reactant for growth of plants unless phosphates are added in the form of fertilizer Phosphate salts are only slightly soluble in water, so they may also act as limiting reactants for the growth of producer populations in freshwater streams and lakes

57. 1.Removing large amounts of phosphates from rocks (mining) in order to produce fertilizer 2.Clearing forests causes topsoil erosion, which depletes already limited quantities of phosphorus 3.Runoff from land clearing leads to algae blooms, decreased dissolved oxygen, and eutrophication of freshwater lakes

58. Eutrophication: physical, chemical, and biological changes that take place after a lake, estuary, or slow-flowing stream receives inputs of plant nutrients – mostly nitrates and phosphates – from natural erosion and runoff from the surrounding land basin. Cultural Eutrophication: Overnourishment of aquatic ecosystems with plant nutrients (mostly nitrates and phosphates) because of human activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and discharges from industrial plants and sewage treatment plants

59. 1960s and 1970s phosphate based detergents were widely used The purification processes used in wastewater treatment plants did not remove phosphates and nitrates, as they are naturally occurring and relatively harmless Some rivers and lakes had foamy surfaces due to effluent discharge Massive algae blooms and increased eutrophication resulted Phosphates were removed from all laundry detergents in 1994; 16 states have banned phosphates in dishwashing detergents

60. Algae overgrowth from phosphate and nitrate runoff

61. Increased phosphate levels create massive algae bloom

62. Phosphorus Cycle Animation

66. Occurs throughout the terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric components of the biosphere Stored primarily in rocks and minerals in the form of sulfate salts (SO 4 2- ) under ocean sediments Sulfur enters the atmosphere in several ways: Hydrogen sulfide gas (H 2 S) – volcanoes and decomposition in swamps, bogs, tidal flats Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) – volcanoes Particulate sulfate salts (SO 4 2- ) - sea spray, dust storms, forest fires Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) – produced by marine algae

67. Sulfur is taken up by plants, consumed by animals, then transferred to decomposers during food web exchanges Sulfur enters the atmosphere through natural and human sources, combines with water vapor to form acid deposition which harms trees and aquatic life Sulfur ions can react with metal ions to form insoluble metallic sulfides which are deposited as rock or metal ore, which is then mined and the cycle continues

68. Largest impact is the release of sulfur into the atmosphere Burning of sulfur containing fossil fuels (coal and oil) for electric power Refining of sulfur containing fossil fuels (petroleum) to make a wide array of petroleum products (gasoline, diesel, heating oil) Extraction of metals such as copper, zinc, and lead from sulfur containing compounds

69. Sulfur Cycle Animation

73. Nutrient cycles provide nutrients to all living organisms These cycles are driven by gravity, solar energy, and the complex nature of food webs Human activities are degrading natural resources These activities are altering the flow of energy throughout the biosphere and altering the rate at which the nutrients cycle

74. Atmosphere Troposphere - 17 km above sea level at the equator, 7 km above sea level at the poles All of the earths “weather” occurs here Air we breathe: 78% N 2, 21% O 2, 1% greenhouse gases (H 2 O vapor, CO 2, CH 4 ) Greenhouse gases are necessary to keep the planet from freezing, these gases absorb and release energy that warms the lower atmosphere Stratosphere – 17 to 50 km above the surface of the earth Holds ozone (O 3 ) which filters out 95% of the suns harmful UV radiation

75. Hydrosphere All water on or near the surface of the earth 3 states of matter: vapor in air, liquid on surface and below ground, solid in polar ice, icebergs, glaciers, ice in frozen soil layers Oceans contain 97% of water on Earth and cover 71% of the earths surface Leaves only 3% as freshwater

79. Geosphere Rock, soils, and sediments Core – intensely hot center Mantle – mostly rock Crust – thin outer layer Upper portion contains non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels, minerals, and renewable nutrients, Biosphere Any part of the planet where life is found (includes hydrosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere)

81. One-way flow of high-quality energy Cycling of nutrients gravity

82. Water vapor Carbon dioxide Methane Nitrous oxide Ozone

83. Burning carbon-containing fossil fuels releases huge quantities of CO 2 into the atmosphere Growing crops and raising livestock release large quantities of CH 4 and N 2 O

84. Nuclear fusion in the sun produces huge amounts of solar radiation Only a small amount reaches the earth in the form of EM waves; visible light, UV radiation, and heat Much of this energy is absorbed or reflected back into space by the earths atmosphere and surface Absorption Solar E that reaches our atmosphere warms the air, and is responsible for nutrient cycling Approximately 1% of the energy generates winds that are responsible for our weather patterns Producers use solar energy to produce the nutrients they need through photosynthesis

85. Reflection Approximately ½ of the initial radiation makes it to the planets surface where it is degraded to lower quality energy after its interaction with land, water, or organisms The rest is reflected back into space As the radiation is traveling back towards space, greenhouse gases (absorb some of the energy which cause the molecules to vibrate faster (see KMT) which creates heat that warms the earth’s lower atmosphere (This is known as the natural greenhouse effect)

87. Ecology – science that focuses on how organisms interact with each other, the non- living environment of energy and matter Organization of Ecosystems Organisms Populations Communities

89. Biotic – living components Abiotic – non-living components Trophic levels – the feeding level of an organism based on its source of food or nutrients

90. Make their own nutrients Photosynthesis Plants absorb solar energy, take carbon dioxide out of the air, and add water molecules to form glucose and oxygen 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + solar energy  C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 Terrestrial = plants Aquatic = algae and plants near shorelines; open ocean = phytoplankton

91. Aquatic Producers

92. Chemosynthesis Specialized bacteria convert simple inorganic compounds from their environment into more complex nutrient compounds without using sunlight Hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor produce very warm water areas Bacteria are able to use hydrogen sulfide gas (H 2 S) to produce complex carbohydrates Chemosynthetic bacteria hydrothermal vents video clip

93. These organisms must obtain the energy they need by consuming producers, other consumers, or their remains All consumers depend on producers for their nutrients Types of consumers Primary consumers Herbivores – animals that eat mostly green plants

94. Secondary Carnivores – eat flesh of other consumers, primarily herbivores Foxes, insect eating songbirds, snakes, lions Tertiary Carnivores that frequently feed on the flesh of other carnivores Tigers, killer whales, sharks, big fish, hawks *The prey that was consumed dictates the level of consumer, some organisms can be secondary and tertiary consumers *Sometimes the levels are represented through the quaternary level (4 th level)

96. Omnivores – eat plants and animals Decomposers Consumers that release nutrients from the wastes or remains of plants and animals and then return those nutrients to the soil, water, and air for reuse by producers Bacteria and fungi Detritus feeders/detritivores Feed on the wastes or dead bodies of other organisms Earthworms, insects, vultures Provides the ecosystem service of cycling nutrients and removing excess plant debris, animal wastes, dead bodies and garbage Time Lapse Decomp of Rabbit

98. Aerobic Process through which energy from glucose is released Uses oxygen to convert glucose back into carbon dioxide and water The net chemical change of aerobic respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis Anaerobic/fermentation Process through which energy from glucose is released Occurs in the absence of oxygen Produces methane, ethyl alcohol, acetic acid and hydrogen sulfide gas *Note that all organisms get their energy from respiration, but only plants and phytoplankton carry out photosynthesis

99. Food Chain – the order in which organisms consume one another (linear) Food Web – the complex interactions of multiple food chains which show the complexities of those interactions (non-linear)

100. Food chains and webs show how energy is transferred between members of ecosystems at different trophic levels As the trophic (feeding) level increases the amount of high-quality energy available decreases Some of the energy is lost as heat at each step.

102. 1.The dry weight of all organic matter contained in its organisms 2.Organic matter produced by plants and other photosynthetic producers 3.Total dry weight of all living organisms that can be supported at each trophic level in a food chain or web 4.Dry weight of all organic matter in plants and animals in an ecosystem 5.Plant materials and animal wastes used as fuel

103. Approximately 90% of high-quality energy is lost in each step of the food chain or web The large loss in chemical energy explains why food chains and webs rarely have more than 3 or 4 levels. As a result of energy loss, there are few tertiary or quaternary consumers as compared to producers and primary consumers.

107. The amount of biomass is that can be produced is the result of available solar energy and how quickly it can be produced from the organisms living in the ecosystem Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) is the rate at which an ecosystem’s producers convert solar energy into chemical energy stored in biomass Measured in kcal/m 2 /yr (E production per unit area over a given time) Net Primary Productivity (NPP) is the rate at of photosynthesis minus the rate of aerobic respiration

110. Producers are the source of all nutrients Only biomass represented as NPP is available as nutrients for consumers The planet’s NPP ultimately limits the number of consumers (including humans) that can survive on earth