1. SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND THEORIES ( PART 2) ALINA BINT-E-TAHIR SARAH SOHAIL SALMAN RIZVI TAUQEER RAZA

2. C OGNITIVE D ISSONANCE

3. Discomfort caused by having two conflicting ideas simultaneously Psychological phenomenon that is the discomfort felt due to discrepancy between what a person already knows and believes and the new information he receives Occurs whenever there is a need to accommodate new ideas http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/dissona nce.htm http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/dissona nce.htm

4. D ISSONANCE Dissonance increases with: The importance of the subject to us. How strongly the dissonant thoughts conflict. Our inability to rationalize and explain away the conflict. http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/cognitiv e_dissonance.htm

5. E LIMINATING C OGNITIVE D ISSONANCE 1. Ignorance 2. Changing Cognitions 3. Alter the importance 4. Adding or Creating new dissonance 5. Most important is to prevent it from happening in the first place http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/cogni tive_dissonance/ http://www.ithaca.edu/faculty/stephens/cdback. html

6. O UTCOME Convince OR Get Convinced

7. S OCIAL I NFLUENCE THEORY According to Latané, social forces influence people on the same way as light bulbs shine on a surface. The stronger the source, the greater the influence The closer to the source, the greater its impact As the number of sources increase, so does their influence – at least to a point. http://weknowmore.org/blog/?p=712

8. Strength People with more importance have greater influence than those with less importance. For instance, at work, a co-worker is less likely to get you to do something than your boss. Immediacy Those nearby you are more likely to influence you than those far away. An individual on the television screen is less likely to get you to do something than someone standing next to you. http://www.ehow.com/facts_5315252_theory-social- impact.html

9. Number: People succumb to peer pressure, and the greater the number of people in the group, the more powerful the peer pressure is. Changing Ideas: People are more likely to listen to groups with authority. Thus, gaining more authority and getting a large group behind you is more likely to make you convincing. Diminishing Returns: Though larger groups are more likely to influence than smaller groups, this effect becomes less and less as the group grows.

10. L ATANE ’ S REVISED MODEL, D YNAMIC S OCIAL I MPACT T HEORY Identified four tendencies in group: Consolidation: over time, the majority grows in size and the minority dwindles in size Clustering: As the law of social impact suggests, people are more influenced by their closest neighbours, and so clusters of group members with similar opinions emerge in group. [dyads, triads) http://home1.fvcc.edu/~rhalvers/Latane revised.htm

11. Correlation: Over time the group members’ opinions on other issues, even one that are not discussed in the group, converge, so that their opinions on a variety of matters are correlated. Continuing diversity: Because of clustering, members of minorities are often shielded from the influence attempts of the majority, and their beliefs continue on within the group.

12. I NFORMATIONAL SOCIAL INFLUENCE Also called the Herding Effect People tend to follow the crowd without examining the merits of a particular thing. Is a psychological phenomenon that occurs in ambiguous social situations when people are unable to determine the appropriate mode of behaviour. We conform because we believe that others’ interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action. http://www.artofdrink.com/sensory/herding-effect-taste.php

13. W HEN W ILL P EOPLE C ONFORM TO I NFORMATIONAL S OCIAL I NFLUENCE ? 1. When the Situation Is Ambiguous. Ambiguity is the most crucial variable in determining whether people use each other as a source of information. 2. When the Situation Is a Crisis. Crisis situations leave us limited time to act, which may make us scared and panicky. If we turn to others who are also panicked for information, our own panic and irrationality may be intensified.

14. 3. When Other People Are Experts. The more expertise or knowledge someone has, the more people will turn to them as a guide in an ambiguous situation. Unfortunately experts are not always reliable sources of information.

15. E XAMPLES Whiten et al. (1999) show that chimpanzees pass on new and innovative behaviors to each other through informational social influence, Vodka: a paradox for Supertasters Drink Bloggers Aliens! http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.cfm?term=Informational %20Social%20Influence http://wps.prenhall.com/hss_aronson_socpsych_6/64/16428/4205685. cw/-/4205769/index.html

16. W HEN I NFORMATIONAL C ONFORMITY B ACKFIRES 1938 Orson Welles War of the Worlds radio broadcast Mass psychogenic illness, the occurrence, in a group of people, of similar physical symptoms with no known physical cause. A recent case occurred in Tennessee in 1998 when a teacher and many students experienced a variety of symptoms that led to their being hospitalized and the school evacuated. Such occurrences can spread more rapidly today than formerly because of instantaneously available media http://wps.prenhall.com/hss_aronson_socpsych_6/64/16428/420568 5.cw/-/4205769/index.html

17. N ORMATIVE INFLUENCE Normative influence is social influence to conform with the positive expectations of others (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955) LaTour and Manrai (1989): Blood donation http://www.hi.com.au/psychology/pdf/HeinPsych1Ch7.pdf

18. When the Group Size is Three or More. When the Group is Important. When One Has No Allies in the Group When the Group’s Culture is Collectivistic The Effect of Low Self- Esteem. Gender Differences in Conformity http://wps.prenhall.com/hss_aronson_socpsych_6/64/16428/4205685.c w/-/4205769/index.html

19. E XAMPLES One-third of 12-13 year-old girls are actively trying to lose weight. 21 to 42 percent of young men have altered their eating habits to gain muscle mass or weight and 12 to 26 percent have dieted to reduce body fat or weight. http://wps.prenhall.com/hss_aronson_socpsych _6/64/16428/4205685.cw/-/4205769/index.html

20. Women learn what standard is appropriate through informational social influence, but normative social influence helps explain their attempts to create the desired body through dieting and eating disorders. Blood donation http://wps.prenhall.com/hss_aronson_socpsych_6/ 64/16428/4205685.cw/-/4205769/index.html

21. S OCIAL I DENTITY T HEORY When we belong to a group, we are likely to derive our sense of identity, at least in part, from that group. We also enhance the sense of identity by making comparisons with out-groups. Breakwell (1978) studied teenage soccer fans, some of whom went to most games, whilst others did not go to games. Example: When travelling abroad http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/social_identity. htm

22. QUESTIONS 1 Conformity is A always bad. B when one person is influenced by many, and goes along with the many. C when people are influenced by one other individual, and go along with that individual, because he or she is an authority. D All of the above. 2 Obedience is A always bad. B when one person is influenced by many, and goes along with the many. C when people are influenced by one other individual, and go along with that individual, because he or she is an authority. D All of the above. 3 Peer pressure is A conformity to people who are not important to us. B always bad. C obedience to authority. D social influence among equal status individuals.

23. 4 Which of the following is correct? A Groups can influence people to become more risky in their behaviours. B Groups can influence people to become more cautious in their behaviours. C Groups lead people to become more extreme in their attitudes and behaviours in the direction they were already leaning. D All of the above. 5 When a majority is no longer unanimous A conformity always decreases, but does not disappear. B conformity disappears. C conformity remains as high as it was when the group was unanimous. D conformity sometimes decreases, and sometimes does not. 6 When people conform to others because they are trying to meet the others’ expectations, this is called A culture. B informational influence. C normative influence. D social proximity.

24. 7 Which of the following is true in terms of the effects of culture on conformity rates? A Culture has no effect at all on conformity because conformity is a very personal experience. B There are higher levels of conformity in the United States than in Japan. C There are higher rates of conformity in cultures that place more emphasis on groups. D There are higher rates of conformity in cultures that place more emphasis on individuals. 8 Obedience to an apparently malevolent authority A decreases as the potential victim gets closer. B increases as the potential victim gets closer. C is unaffected by the closeness of the potential victim; all that matters is the authority’s legitimacy. D None of the above. 9 When people are in positions of high status and power, A they will always act for the benefit of all. B they will inevitably become tyrants. C they will not be influenced by their peers. D tyranny is not the only possible outcome. 10 Which of the following is not an essential ethical principle related to the conduct of research? A Ensuring participants are paid for their time. B Ensuring participants provide consent for their participation. C Having an independent committee evaluate the ethics of the research before it is conducted. D Treating participants with respect.