1. Learning
Chapter 5

2. Introduction
Learning: process by which expertise or practice result in relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior
Encompasses classroom learning and studying, but also covers other forms of learning like turning off the lights when you leave a room, locking the door when you leave the house and learning how to dance
Conditioning: acquisition of specific patterns of behavior in the presence of well-defined stimuli
Basic form of learning
EX: a dog getting their leash when their owner puts on their shoes
Dog knows that they are going for a walk because of past experiences

3. Classical Conditioning
Section 1

4. Pavlov’s Conditioning Experiments
Classical conditioning was discovered on accident by Ivan Pavlov ( )
Russian physiologist who was studying digestive processes
Wanted to measure how much a dog would salivate when food was paced in their mouths so he placed tubes into the salivary glands
Noticed that the dogs would salivate when they heard the feeders footsteps and before they were even fed
Changed experiment and set out to teach dogs to salivate when a bell was sounded before they were fed
Learned to salivate at the sounds of the bell

5. Elements of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning involves pairing a response that is usually triggered from one stimuli with a different neutral stimuli
Pavlov’s experiment illustrated the 4 basic elements of Classical Conditioning
Unconditional Stimulus (US): stimulus that causes an organism to respond a specific way
EX: Food
Unconditional Response (UR): a response that takes place in an organism whenever an unconditional stimulus occurs
EX: salivation

6. Classical Conditioning is also know as Pavlovian Conditioning
Reflexive behaviors happen because of a neutral stimuli
EX: when you get anxious during a scary movie because you have heard the same eerie music in other scary movies
Classical conditioning is contrasted with Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Conditioning
Selected behaviors are practiced to gain a reward or avoid punishment
EX: teaching a dog to sit and then rewarding them with a treat
Will sit again to receive another reward

7. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditional stimulus and eventually produces desired response in an organism when presented alone
EX: ringing bell
Conditioned Response (CR): after conditioning, the response an organism produces when only a conditioned stimulus presented
EX: hearing the bell and then salivating

8. Classical Conditioning in Humans
Human beings learn behaviors through classical conditioning
Irrational fears and anxieties are learned or conditioned
Cats, spiders, snakes, heights, closed spaces
Wolpe discovered that they could be unlearned or conditioned

9. Desensitization Therapy: conditioning technique designed to gradually reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation
Step 1: teaches patient deep muscle relaxation techniques
Step 2: Construct a list of situations that cause a variety of levels of fear and anxiety
Rate them form 1-100
Step 3: enter into deep relaxation and imagine the least stressful situation and work their way up

10. Classical Conditioning is Selective
Humans must be prepared to develop fear responses and phobias for survival
Likely to be scared of heights and falling and dying them about a flower
Preparedness also underlies conditioned Food (or Taste) Aversion
Conditioned avoidance of certain foods id there is only one pairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
Only need to get sick from food poisoning to not eat that food again

11. Operant Conditioning

12. Elements of Operant Conditioning
Operant Behavior: behavior designed to operate on the environment in a way that will gain some kind of desired or avoid something unpleasant
Edward Lee Thorndike ( )
American psychologist and educator
Cat and Puzzle Box Experiment
Put hungry cats in a box where they could see and smell their food
Each time the cat would be placed in the box it would take less and less time to get out of the box to eat

13. Reinforcer: stimulus that follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior would be repeated
Punishers: stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
Law of Effect: Thorndike’s theory that behavior consistently rewarded will be “stamped in” as a learned behavior, and behavior that brings about discomfort will be “stamped out”
Also, known as principle of reinforcement

14. Types of Reinforcement
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcements: any event whose presence increases the likelihood that an ongoing behavior will occur
Adds something
EX: food, pleasant music, anything rewarding
Negative Reinforcements: any event whose reduction or termination increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur
Subtract something unpleasant
EX: Animal learning to press a button to open a cage door to escape loud noises

15. EX: fine for speeding or littering Punishments should be…
Punishment: any event whose presence decreases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur
EX: fine for speeding or littering
Punishments should be…
Effective, it must be imposed properly
Swift—be punished right away
Sufficient—make sure punishment sis proportionate to action
Consistent—punish each and every time they misbehave

16. Significant drawbacks to punishments
Punishments only suppress behavior—doesn’t teach more desirable behavior
Punishments often stir up unpleasant emotions that can impede learning the behavior we want to be substituted
EX: when children are scolded fro mispronouncing a word child may become frightened and confused and then they may mispronounce more words because they are distracted
Punishments may convey the notion that inflicting pain on other is justified

17. As a method for controlling behavior, punishment is one of the least pleasant options because it is ineffective and can have negative side effects
Avoidance Training: learning a desirable behavior to prevent the occurrence of something unpleasant such as punishment

18. Operant Conditioning is Selective
Some behaviors are easier to train than others
Leaning was most successful in situation that would occur in natural training sessions
EX: eating with silverware v. hands

19. Superstitious Behavior
Humans learn superstitions through Operant Conditioning
EX: If we are wearing a pair of shoes and win a basketball game you might want to wear those shoes to every game

20. Little attempt to seek reward or avoid discomfort
Learned Helplessness
Learned Helplessness: failure to take steps to avoid or escape from an unpleasant or averse stimulus that occurs as a result of previous exposure to unavoidable painful stimuli
EX: children raised in abusive homes where punishment is unrelated to child’s behavior often developed a sense of powerlessness
Even when child is removed from environment and in a relatively normal environment the child still remains listless, passive and indifferent
Little attempt to seek reward or avoid discomfort

21. Comparing Operant and Classical Conditioning
Section 3

22. Classical Conditioning
Response Acquisition
Classical Conditioning
Requires repeated pairings of Conditioned Stimulus and Unconditioned stimulus
Each pairing builds on the learners pervious experience
Response Acquisition: the “building phase” of conditioning during which the likelihood or strength of the desired response increases
Each pairing of Conditioned Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus is called a trial
For the best learning trials should occur and a consistent interval of time...not too many to close together or far apart

23. Operant Conditioning
Most difficult but the behavior taught is usually a voluntary trail such as not talking while someone else is talking
Need to wait until the subject lands on the correct response on their own
Can be a slow process

24. There are ways to speed up the process and make it more likely that the desired response will happen
Increase motivation
Reduce or eliminate the opportunities for making the wrong choice
Shaping: reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior
Rewarding each step in learning a behavior and setting the expectations a little higher each time
EX: reward for being to class on time, then a reward for being to class on time and in uniform, finally a reward for being to class on time, in uniform and working on the Do Now

25. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
How long does a learned behavior last, and once lost can it be recovered?
Classical Conditioning
Extinction: a decrease in the strength or frequency of a learned response because of failure to continue pairing the Unconditioned Stimulus and Conditioned Stimulus (Classical Conditioning) or withholding of reinforcement (operant conditioning)
Eventually you are desensitized, or no longer sensitize to certain things after experiencing them so much

26. Spontaneous Recovery: the reappearance of an extinguished response after the passage of time, without further training
Extinction does not erase conditioned responses, extinction occurs because new learning interferes with pervious learned response
We overcome this interference with renewal effect

27. Operant Conditioning
Extinction happens when the reinforcement is being withheld
Does not result in immediate decrease in frequency

28. Extinction does not erase the response forever
Spontaneous recovery may occur
Will advert back to pervious behaviors but is capable of still demonstrating learned behavior
The stronger the original learning the longer it takes to stop action from being preformed
The greater the variety of settings in which learning takes place the harder to extinguish
Behaviors learned through punishment rather than reinforcement are especially harder to distinguish

29. Generalization and Discrimination
Classical Conditioning
Remember the Little Albert and white rat experiment?
Later tried to show him a white RABBIT and he was still frightened, cried and tried to crawl away
Stimulus Generalization: the transfer of a learned response to a different but similar stimuli
Albert was afraid of the rabbit because it looked like the white rat

30. Stimulus Discrimination: learning to respond to only one stimulus and to inhabit the response to all other stimuli
If they would have given Albert the white rat, rabbit, cotton balls and other white fluffy things and only made the loud sound when he touched the rat he would be able to discriminate the only “scary” item as the rat

31. Operant Conditioning
Stimulus Generalization
EX: the skills you learn in ping pong you may generalize when playing badminton or tennis
Response Generalization: giving a response that is somewhat different from the response originally learned form the stimulus
EX: a baby who called everyone “mama” might start using word like “gaga” and “baba” because they should similar—generalized as the same thing

32. Discrimination
Only reinforcing a very specific response and only in the presence of a specific stimulus
EX: only showing praise to a baby that says “mama” will stop saying gaga and baba

33. New Learning Based on Original Learning
Higher-Order Conditioning in Classical Conditioning
Conditioning based on pervious learning; the conditioned stimulus serves as an unconditioned stimulus for further training
EX: Pavlov was able to get his dogs to salivate at the sight of a black square
Originally they would salivate when they heard bell but now he would show them a black square and then ring the bell
The black square became the object that made them salivate not the bell
Difficult to achieve because it races against extinction

34. Secondary Reinforces in Operant Conditioning
Primary Reinforcer: a reinforcer that is rewarding in itself, such as food and water
Secondary Reinforcer: a reinforcer whose value is acquired through association with other primary or secondary reinforcer
EX: money
Just holding the paper doesn’t do much for you, but being able to buy things is what you want money for

35. Classical Conditioning
Contingencies
Classical Conditioning
Contingency: reliable “if- then” relationship between 2 events such as Conditioned Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus
EX: If I hear a loud sound and get shocked but sometimes when I hear the sound I don’t get shocked, then I will be startled every time I hear a loud sound
Blocking: a process whereby conditioning prevents conditioning to a second stimulus even when the two stimuli are presented simultaneously
EX: if you add a flash of light to the above example they only showed fear when the heard the sound…they had be conditioned to be scare of the sound not the later added light

36. Operant Conditioning
Schedule of Reinforcement
Schedule of Reinforcement: in operant conditioning, the rule for determining when and how often reinforcers will be delivered
A fixed-Interval
Correct response is reinforced after a fixed length of time since the last reinforcement
EX: Midterms and final exams—student stress peak right before them and hten drop dramatically when they are over

37. Variable-Interval Schedule
Reinforced after varying lengths of time following the last reinforcement
EX: giving students candy at different time periods with no pattern in mind
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Reinforced after a fixed number of correct response
EX: getting paid only for working 4 hr shifts. Work less then 4 hrs don’t get paid and if you work 6hrs you only get paid for one 4 hr shift

38. Variable-Ratio Schedule
Varying number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement is presented
EX: Casino slot machine
You will win but you have no idea of when
There is always a chance of hitting a jackpot so the temptation to play is high

39. Cognitive Learning
Section 4

40. Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
Cognitive Learning: learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly observable
How we learn our way around building or neighborhood, we learn what to expect from a given situation, abstract concepts, etc
Latent Learning: learning that is not immediately reflected in a behavior change
Learn something but don’t use it right away…use it later on when it makes sense to use it
Cognitive Map: learned mental image of a spatial environment that may be called on to solve problems when stimuli is the environment change

41. Insight and Learning Sets
Insight: learning that occurs rapidly as a result of understanding all the element of a problem
The sudden coming together of elements of a situation
“oohhhh that makes sense now” moments
Pervious learning can also be used to speed up new learning
Learning sets: ability to become increasingly more effective in solving problems as more problems are solved
With practice and experience problem solving becomes easier and easier

42. Many psychologists believe that leaning comes form conditioning
Learning by Observing
Many psychologists believe that leaning comes form conditioning
Others believe that is stems from social learning theories
Social Learning Theory: emphasizes that ability to learn by observing a model or receiving instructions, without firsthand experience by the learner
We cam learn a behavior without ever doing it
Observational Learning: learning by observing other peoples behavior
By watching someone else do something we can do it to

43. Vicarious Reinforcement and Vicarious Punishment
Reinforcement or punishment experiences by model that affects the willingness of other to perform behaviors they learn by observing those models
Will or will no do something because of the consequences that are experienced by others

44. Bandura’s Experiment in Learned Aggressive Behavior
Watch video answer following questions 1. 2. 3.