1. Scientific Writing: An Introduction Writing Guidelines for Students http://writing.eng.vt.edu/ The Craft of Scientific Writing 3rd edition (Springer-Verlag, 1996)

2. How well you communicate affects your career Survey (Richard M. Davis) Successful engineers spent 25% of work week writing Survey (Virginia Tech) Recruiters claim that engineers need more work on their writing Survey (Wisconsin) Professional engineers found writing their most useful subject in college

3. How well you communicate affects the well-being of others Space Shuttle Challenger (January 28, 1986) Explosion was caused by failure of O- rings in the solid rocket boosters Engineers knew of O-ring problems well before fatal launch Engineers failed to communicate seriousness of problem [Report, 1986]

4. Scientists and engineers are called upon to communicate in many different situations specific technical audiences non-technical audiences general technical audiences Reports Articles Proposals Web Pages Conferences Lectures Meetings Posters

5. Scientific writing differs from other kinds of writing Subject Matter Writing Constraints audience purpose occasion Purpose of Writing To inform To persuade [Franklin, 1952] Writing Style [Peterson, 1987]

6. You should begin the writing process by analyzing your constraints Purpose Audience Occasion Format Formality Politics and ethics Process and deadline Who they are What they know Why they will read How they will read To inform To persuade

7. Three aspects of writing affect the way that readers assess your documents Content Style Form

8. Style is the way you communicate the content to the audience Structure wordswordswords words wordswords wordswordswords wordswordswordswords Language style Illustration [Peterson, 1987]

9. Form embodies the format and mechanics of the writing format typography layout mechanics grammar usage punctuation spelling

10. We can split the writing process into stages Writing the First Draft Getting in the Mood Revising, Revising, Revising Finishing

11. Structure: the Strategy of Style Beginning Ending Middle If a man can group his ideas, then he is a writer. Robert Louis Stevenson

12. Beginning Ending Middle The organization of a scientific document can be viewed as a beginning, middle, and ending Title Summary Introduction Middle Sections Conclusions Back Matter

13. Beginnings prepare readers for understanding the work Summary tells readers what happens in document Introduction prepares readers for the middle Title orients readers to document

14. Several names for summaries exist Summary Abstract Technical Abstract Executive Summary Descriptive Abstract Informative Abstract

15. A document's introduction prepares readers for the discussion Topic? Importance? Introduction Arrangement? Background?

16. The introduction defines the scope and limitations of the work Proposed Study on Effects of Alcohol on Life Expectancy Three classes of drinkers: non-drinkers moderate drinkers heavy drinkers Ten-year study Other effects, such as exercise, not considered Medical histories not considered Women may not experience the same effects Men surveyed scope limitations

17. Common strategies exist for the middles of scientific reports Chronological [Maizels, 2001] Spatial [Pratt & Whitney, 2000]

18. Common strategies exist for the middles of scientific reports Parallel Parts Corel Corporation Flow [Sandia, 1985]

19. Section headings should be descriptive and parallel Non-Parallel Non-Descriptive Introduction Background Marx Generators Line Pulse Beam Generation Transporting Beam Pellets Results Conclusions Introduction Background Marx Generators Line Pulse Beam Generation Transporting Beam Pellets Results Conclusions Parallel Descriptive Introduction Past Designs for Particle Beam Fusion New Design for Particle Beam Fusion Charging Marx Generators Forming Line Pulse Generating Particle Beam Transporting Particle Beam Irradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets Results of New Design Conclusions and Recommendations Introduction Past Designs for Particle Beam Fusion New Design for Particle Beam Fusion Charging Marx Generators Forming Line Pulse Generating Particle Beam Transporting Particle Beam Irradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets Results of New Design Conclusions and Recommendations

20. Many journal articles follow a set organization named IMRaD Materials and Methods Results Discussion Introduction

21. In a strong ending, you analyze results and give a future perspective Analyze results from overall perspective Conclusions Analysis of Results Several options: Make recommendations Discuss future work Repeat limitations Future Perspective

22. Failing to cite the contribution of others can be a fatal flaw in your career James Watson surreptitiously looked at Rosalind Franklin’s work [Franklin, 1952] Watson did not give enough credit to Franklin [Luzzati, 1950]

23. Avoiding Common Errors of Grammar One of the most important skills a writer can have is the ability to compose clear, complete sentences. The sentence is the basic unit of communication in all forms of English. Funk, McMahan, and Day Elements of Grammar

24. Not all mechanical errors bother readers in the same way Errors that disturb run-on sentence its/it’s spell checker ignored Errors that distract missing intro comma faulty parallelism unclear pronoun ref Errors that few even notice different from/than contraction split infinitive

25. The most important aspect of grammar is understanding what a sentence is Sentence:A sentence is group of words with a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought. Fragment:A fragment being a group of words that either is missing a subject or a verb or does not express a complete thought. Run-on:A run-on is two or more independent clauses that are not joined properly, for instance, a common mistake is to have a comma between the clauses.

26. Which are sentences (S), fragments (F), or run-ons (RO)? Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel. Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century. Several systems can detect plastic explosives. For example, thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems. RO S S / F

27. Shown in yellow are corrections to the errors from the previous slide Although rubidium has no major uses, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel. Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century. Several systems can detect plastic explosives. Examples include thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems.

28. Note that there are several ways to correct each of these errors Rubidium has no major uses; however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel. Rubidium has no major uses, but it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel. Rubidium has no major uses. This metal, however, is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.

29. Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil voltages, contact ratings, and lack multi-pole configurations. Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil voltages and contact ratings, and lack multi- pole configurations.

30. Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and may leave the area. Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes and sores, and may leave the area. Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and wandering tendencies.

31. Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is also important in grammar These proteins indicate to the body what hormones should be given off among other things. These proteins indicate, among other things, to the body what hormones should be given off. In meeting the staff of the Parks Department, the greatest problem was that of water leakage. From the staff of the Parks Department, we learned that the greatest problem was that of water leakage.

32. Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities it??? Because the receiver presented the radiometer with a high flux environment, it was mounted in a silver-plated stainless steel container. If you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday," do not open it. It will erase everything on your hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many people as you can. This is a very malicious virus and not many people know about it. This??? this???

33. Avoiding Common Errors of Punctuation Punctuation marks are the traffic signs and signals placed along the reader’s road. They tell him when to slow down and when to stop, and sometimes they warn him of the nature of the road ahead. Traffic engineers do not always agree on what signs should be used and where they should be placed, and neither do writers or editors. Theodore M. Bernstein The Careful Writer,

34. Punctuation rules are designed to have sentences be read one way Colon: a colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition. Semi-Colon: a semi-colon either joins two independent clauses (closely linked in thought) or separates complex items in a list. Dash: a dash acts as a parenthesis to separate items that cannot be separated by commas. Comma: a comma separates details in a sentence.

35. A colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition We studied five types of marsupials: opossums, bandicoots, koalas, wombats, and kangaroos. The laboratory growth of this crystal made possible a new astronomical tool: a gamma-ray detector with high-energy resolution. In formal writing, what is on the left side of the colon should stand alone as a separate sentence. Once the list ends, the sentence ends.

36. Although equations are separated by white space, they should be treated as part of the sentence To calculate the strain, , we used equation 1: where  is the stress estimated by FEPC and E is the modulus of elasticity of aluminum.  =  E (1),

37. Commas separate introductory phrases and clauses After cooling the exhaust gases continue to expand. After cooling, the exhaust gases continue to expand.

38. Commas separate parenthetical details X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive require the operator’s attention. X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive, require the operator’s attention.

39. Commas separate items in a list Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred through spills when loading vehicles, spills and over- spills when filling the tanks, leaks from supply pipes and corroded welds, rust holes and cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves. Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred through the following: spills when loading vehicles; spills and over-spills when filling the tanks; leaks from supply pipes; and corroded welds, rust holes, and cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves.

40. The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid rain (are / is) given in the next section. So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have) remained constant. The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from any damaging effects that a laser could cause. In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the first series of computers was replaced. are Two common usage errors are possessives and subject-verb disagreements has person’s boss’s

41. The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the document depend upon position Introduction This report presents a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. Results and Discussion...Figure 1 shows the circuit that connects the light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. Conclusions This report has presented a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. As was shown in Figure 1, the circuit...

42. Use numerals when referring to measurements When to write out numbers Counting (one or two words)twenty-three gages Informal measurementstwo hours First word of sentenceThirty-three... When to use numerals Specific measurements3 volts, 2 seconds, 1 m/s Percentages15 percent Monetary figures$3000 Large numerals5 million

43. Language: the Way We Use Words Short words are the best, and short words when old are best of all. Winston Churchill Concise Familiar Clear Fluid Precise Forthright wordwordwordword word wordwordwordword word wordword word

44. Generalities that are not anchored with specifics are soon forgotten After recognizing some problems with the solar mirrors, we took subsequent corrective measures. Trash After finding that high winds (and not hail) had cracked the ten solar mirrors, we began stowing all mirrors in a horizontal position during thunderstorms.

45. For precise language, you should avoid over-specifying details The number of particular hydrocarbon combinations in our study is enormous. For example, the number of possible C 20 H 42 is 366,319 and the number for C 40 H 82 is 62,491,178,805,831. The number of hydrocarbon combinations in our study is enormous. For example, the number of possible C 40 H 82 is more than 62 trillion.

46. For precision, you must choose the appropriate level of detail Operations at the plant stopped momentarily because the thermal storage charging system desuperheater attemperator valve was replaced. Operations at the plant stopped for 1.5 hours so that a valve in the thermal storage system could be replaced.

47. R.I.P. Complex wording buries ideas This study will consider why current solar energy systems, such as Solar One, have not reached the commercial stage and will find out what steps we can take to make these systems commercial. The goal of this study is to develop a commerciali- zation strategy for solar energy systems by analyzing factors impeding early commercial projects (i.e., SOLAR ONE) and by identifying the potential actions that can facilitate the viability of the projects.

48. Stacking adjectives before nouns swallows the ideas Solar One is a solar-powered pilot plant located near Barstow, California. Solar One produces 10 megawatts of electricity by capturing solar energy in a central receiver design. Solar One is a 10 megawatt solar thermal electric central receiver Barstow power pilot plant.

49. Complex sentences misdirect readers The goal of the work was to confirm the nature of electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields at high pressures and electrode gaps which approach those obtained in engineering practice, prior to the deter- mination of the processes which set the criterion for breakdown in the above-mentioned gas in uniform and non-uniform fields of engineering significance. At high pressures (760 torr) and typical electrode gap distances (1 mm), the electrical breakdown of nitrogen was studied in uniform fields.

50. The more muddled the original, the more revisions are needed to streamline it At high pressures (760 torr) and typical electrode gap distances (1 mm), the electrical breakdown of nitrogen was studied in uniform fields. In our study, we examined the electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields. For these experiments, the electrode gap distances were typical (1 mm), while the pressures were relatively high (760 torr).

51. An ambiguity is a group of words that can have more than one meaning We examined neat methanol and ethanol and methanol and ethanol with 10% water. We examined four fuels: neat methanol, neat ethanol, methanol with 10% water, and ethanol with 10% water.

52. Ambiguities occur for many reasons ????????? ??????? As light hydrocarbons evaporate the oil vapor pressure falls. Although engineers realized the design flaws in the Titanic soon after its sinking in 1912, the reasons for the severe damage inflicted by the iceberg remained a mystery until its discovery in 1985. ???? The proposed schedule is discussed below for the next four years.

53. about cause; bring about carry out individual can operate use Pretentious diction often causes problems with tone approximately facilitate implement individualized operationability utilization

54. Weak verbs hide the energy of your work A new process for eliminating nitrogen oxides from diesel exhaust engines is presented. Flow tube experiments to test this process are discussed. The percentage decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions is revealed. This paper presents a new process for eliminating nitrogen oxides from the exhaust of diesel engines. To test this process, we performed experiments in flow tubes. These experiments revealed a 99 percent decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions.

55. A formal definition has a specific form Bremsstrahlung: the radiation emitted by a charged particle that is accelerated in the Coulomb force field of a nucleus. noun term + noun naming class to which noun term belongs information to separate noun term from other terms in class noun term

56. To tighten your writing, eliminate redundancies and writing zeroes Vibration measurements made in the course of the Titan flight test program were complicated by the presence of intense high-frequency excitation of the vehicle shell structure during the re-entry phase of the flight. Vibration measurements made in the Titan flight were complicated by intense high- frequency excitation of the vehicle shell during re-entry.

57. Examples anchor abstract generalities By the late Middle Ages, cities throughout Europe were building Gothic cathedrals. The only way, however, that architects could test a new design was to build the cathedral, a process that took more than forty years. Unfortunately, many cathedrals caved in during or after construction. What took forty years to test in the Middle Ages could have been done in minutes on a supercomputer. William Wilson

58. Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. A cloud of hot rock and gas surged northward from its collapsing slope. The cloud devastated more than 500 square kilometers of forests and lakes. The effects of Mount St. Helens were well documented with geophysical instruments. The origin of the eruption is not well understood. Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid expansion of steam. Some scientists believe the steam comes from groundwater heated by the magma. Other scientists believe the steam comes from water originally dissolved in the magma. We need to understand the source of steam in volcanic eruptions. We need to determine how much water the magma contains. When sentence openers do not vary, the sentences do not seem to connect Z Z Z

59. Varying sentence openers allows for more kinds of transitions between sentences Sentence #1 Sentence #2 Sentence #3 Topic of SentenceSubject Time of actionPrepositional Phrase Location of actionPrepositional Phrase Manner of action Adverb Subordinate actionDependent Clause Reason for actionInfinitive Phrase

60. Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm Mount St. Helens erupted on May… subject-verb In minutes, the mountain emitted… prepositional phrase Recently, debate has arisen... adverb Although the exact time of the eruption surprised scientists, evidence had been collected... dependent clause To understand the eruption, we have to... infinitive phrase

61. Varying sentence openers enlivens the writing and allows connections Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. Its slope collapsing, the mountain emitted a cloud of hot rock and gas. In minutes, the cloud devastated more than 500 square kilometers of forests and lakes. Although the effects of the eruption were well documented, the origin is not well understood. Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid expansion of steam. Recently, debate has arisen over the source for the steam. Is it groundwater heated by magma or water originally dissolved in the magma itself? To understand the source of steam in volcanic eruptions, we need to determine how much water the magma contains.

62. The Craft of Editing Editing isn’t a cosmetic process. It’s a thinking process. Richard Rhodes, author Making of the Atomic Bomb