1. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 1 17—Schools Exploring Children’s Schooling Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity in SchoolsSocioeconomic Status and Ethnicity in Schools Children with Disabilities Achievement Summary

2. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 2 Exploring Children’s Schooling Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning and Assessment –Direct Instruction and Constructivist Approaches Direct instruction approach: A teacher-centered approach that emphasizes teacher direction and control, mastery of academic skills by children, high expectations for students, and maximum time spent on learning tasks.

3. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 3 Exploring Children’s Schooling –Direct Instruction and Constructivist Approaches (continued) Cognitive constructivist approaches emphasize the child’s active, cognitive construction of knowledge and understanding; Piaget’s theory is the main developmental theory linked with this approach.

4. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 4 Exploring Children’s Schooling –Direct Instruction and Constructivist Approaches (continued) Social constructivist approaches focus on the importance of collaborating with others to produce knowledge and understanding; Vygotsky’s theory is the main developmental theory linked with this approach.

5. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 5 Exploring Children’s Schooling – Direct Instruction and Constructivist Approaches (continued) Constructivist approaches apply learner-centered principles; advocates argue that direct instruction turns children into passive learners and does not adequately challenge them to think in critical and creative ways. Advocates of direct instruction say constructivist approaches do not give enough attention to discipline content.

6. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 6 Exploring Children’s Schooling Contemporary Approaches (continued) –Accountability The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation identifies objectives for students and creates tests to measure whether students meet those objectives. Critics argue that the tests and procedures mandated by NCLB do more harm than good, stressing that using a single test as the sole indicator of students’ progress presents a narrow view of students’ skills. “Teaching to the test” neglects teaching thinking skills.

7. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 7 Exploring Children’s Schooling Learner-Centered Physiological Principles Figure 17.1

8. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 8 Exploring Children’s Schooling Early Childhood Education –In the 1840s, Friedrich Froebel founded the kindergarten— “a garden for children”— because children, like growing plants, require careful nurturing. –The Child-Centered Kindergarten Education that involves the whole child and concern for his or her physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development; it is organized around the child’s needs, interests, and learning style.

9. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 9 Exploring Children’s Schooling Early Childhood Education (continued) –The Montessori Approach An educational philosophy, patterned after the educational philosophy of Maria Montessori, in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities and are allowed to move from one activity to another as they desire.

10. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 10 Exploring Children’s Schooling Early Childhood Education (continued) –Education for Young Children Who Are Disadvantaged Project Head Start is a compensatory program designed to provide children from low-income families the opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for school success. The Perry Preschool program, a 2-year preschool program, includes weekly home visits; its graduates have higher high school graduation and employment rates, lower dependence on welfare, and lower crime rates and teen pregnancies.

11. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 11 Exploring Children’s Schooling Early Childhood Education (continued) –Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Education Many educators and psychologists believe that preschool and young elementary school children learn best through active, hands-on teaching methods such as games and dramatic play, and a focus on social and cognitive development.

12. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 12 Exploring Children’s Schooling – Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Education (continued) Developmentally appropriate practice is based on knowledge of the typical developmental patterns of children within an age span (age appropriateness) and the uniqueness of the child (individual appropriateness), in contrast to developmentally inappropriate practice, which relies on abstract paper-and-pencil activities presented to large groups.

13. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 13 Exploring Children’s Schooling NAEYC Recommendations for Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Education Refer to Figure 17.2

14. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 14 Exploring Children’s Schooling Early Childhood Education (continued) –Controversy about early childhood education: Some advocate a child-centered, constructivist approach like that emphasized by the NAEYC along the lines of developmentally appropriate practice; others advocate an academic, instructivist approach; and others propose both academic and constructivist approaches. Education should encourage adequate preparation for learning, varied learning activities, trusting relationships between adults and children, and increased parental involvement.

15. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 15 Exploring Children’s Schooling Elementary School –For most children, entering the first grade signals a change from being a “homechild” to being a “schoolchild.” –Early schooling proceeds mainly on the basis of negative feedback, which has a negative impact on children’s self-esteem as they proceed through elementary school. –Contemporary education experts believe children should be active, constructivist learners, taught through concrete, hands-on experience.

16. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 16 Exploring Children’s Schooling Educating Adolescents –The Transition to Middle or Junior High School Although the transition from elementary school to middle school has benefits, it can also be stressful. When students make the transition from elementary school to middle school or junior high school, they experience the top-dog phenomenon—the circumstance of moving from the top position in elementary school to the lowest position in middle or junior high school.

17. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 17 Exploring Children’s Schooling Educating Adolescents (continued) –Effective Schools for Adolescents Critics contend that instead of offering curricular and extracurricular activities geared to the biological and psychological development of young adolescents, middle and junior high schools mimic the curricular and extracurricular schedules of high schools.

18. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 18 Exploring Children’s Schooling – Effective Schools for Adolescents (continued) The Carnegie Foundation (1989) recommends: –Smaller “communities” with lower student-to- counselor ratios –Involvement of parents and community leaders –Curricula that produce students who are literate, understand the sciences, and have a sense of health, ethics, and citizenship –Team-teaching and integrating disciplines –Boosting students’ health and fitness

19. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 19 Exploring Children’s Schooling Educating Adolescents (continued) –High School Concerns about U.S. high school education include inadequate reading, writing, and mathematical skills; students dropping out of high school; and lack of skills necessary for advancing in the work world. Although high school dropout rates declined in the last half of the twentieth century, they remain high for Latinos and are especially high for Native Americans, who have the highest dropout rates in the United States (30 to 50%).

20. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 20 Exploring Children’s Schooling –High School (continued) Effective programs provide early reading programs, tutoring, counseling, and mentoring; emphasize the importance of creating a caring environment and relationships; and offer community-service opportunities.

21. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 21 Exploring Children’s Schooling Trends in High School Dropout Rates Refer to Figure 17.3

22. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 22 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 Discuss approaches to schooling and development –Review What are some contemporary approaches to student learning? What are some variations in early childhood education? What are some characteristics of elementary education? How are U.S. adolescents educated, and what are the challenges in educating adolescents?

23. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 23 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 –Reflect How would you characterize the approach of the schools that you attended as a child and an adolescent? Do you think your schools were effective? Explain.

24. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 24 Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity in Schools Socioeconomic Status –Children in poverty face barriers to learning: Parents who don’t set high educational standards, can’t read to them, and don’t have money to pay for educational materials and experiences Malnourishment Crime and violence are a way of life –Students in low-income areas are more likely to have low achievement test scores, low graduation rates, fewer students going to college, less experienced teachers, and more rote learning.

25. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 25 Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity in Schools Ethnicity in Schools –School segregation is still a factor in U.S. education, with almost one-third of all African American and Latino students attending schools in which 90% or more of the students are from minority groups (Banks, 2002, 2003). –Students of color, especially African Americans and Latinos, have inferior educational opportunities, are exposed to teachers and school administrators who have low academic expectations for them, and encounter negative stereotypes (Ogbu & Stern, 2001).

26. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 26 Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity in Schools Ethnicity in Schools (continued) –Strategies for improving relationships among ethnically diverse students: Turn the class into a jigsaw classroom (Aronson, 1986). Use technology to foster cooperation with students from around the world. Encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse other students. Encourage students to engage in perspective taking.

27. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 27 Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity in Schools Ethnicity in Schools (continued) –Strategies for improving relationships (continued) Help students think critically and be emotionally intelligent when cultural issues are involved. Reduce bias. View the school and community as a team to help support teaching efforts. Be a competent cultural mediator.

28. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 28 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 Describe the roles of socioeconomic status and ethnicity in schools –Review How do socioeconomic status and poverty influence children’s schooling? How is ethnicity involved in children’s schooling?

29. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 29 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 –Reflect In the context of education, are ethnic differences always negative? Come up with some differences that might be positive in U.S. classrooms.

30. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 30 Children with Disabilities –Approximately 10% of all children in the United States receive special education or related services for a disability. –Substantial percentages of children also have speech or language impairments, mental retardation, and serious emotional disturbance.

31. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 31 Children with Disabilities The Diversity of Children Who Have a Disability Refer to Figure 17.4

32. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 32 Children with Disabilities Learning Disabilities –Characteristics Learning disabilities are diagnosed when a child: –has a minimum IQ level –has a significant difficulty in a school-related area (especially reading or mathematics) –does not display certain severe emotional disorders, or experiences difficulties as a result of using English as a second-language background, or has sensory disabilities or specific neurological deficits

33. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 33 Children with Disabilities Learning Disabilities (continued) –About three times as many boys as girls are classified as having a learning disability due to greater biological vulnerability among boys and referral bias. –The most common learning disability involves reading. –Dyslexia A category reserved for individuals who have a severe impairment in the ability to read and spell.

34. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 34 Children with Disabilities Learning Disabilities (continued) –Intervention Strategies Many interventions have focused on improving the child’s reading ability (Alexander & Slinger- Constant, 2004). No model program has proven to be effective for all children with learning disabilities.

35. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 35 Children with Disabilities Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) –Characteristics ADHD is a disability in which children consistently show one or more of the following characteristics over a period of time: (1) inattention, (2) hyperactivity, and (3) impulsivity. Diagnoses include ADHD with predominantly inattention, ADHD with predominantly hyperactivity/impulsivity, or ADHD with both inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity.

36. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 36 Children with Disabilities Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (continued) –Diagnosis and Developmental Status The disorder occurs four to nine times more in boys than in girls. Some experts attribute the increase in diagnosed cases to heightened awareness of the disorder; others believe children are being overdiagnosed. Signs are often present in preschool years, but classification often doesn’t occur until elementary school.

37. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 37 Children with Disabilities Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (continued) –Causes and Treatment Proposed causes include low levels of certain neurotransmitters, pre- and postnatal abnormalities, and environmental toxins. A combination of academic, behavioral, and medical interventions helps students with ADHD learn and adapt more effectively.

38. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 38 Children with Disabilities Educational Issues –1975: Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, required that all students with disabilities be given a free, appropriate public education. –1990: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) spells out broad mandates for services to all children with disabilities.

39. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 39 Children with Disabilities Educational Issues (continued) –Individualized education plan (IEP) A written statement that spells out a program tailored to a student with a disability. The IEP should be (1) related to the child’s learning capacity, (2) specially constructed to meet the child’s individual needs and not merely a copy of what is offered to other children, and (3) designed to provide educational benefits.

40. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 40 Children with Disabilities Educational Issues (continued) –Least restrictive environment (LRE) A setting that is as similar as possible to the one in which children who do not have a disability are educated. –Inclusion Educating a child with special education needs full- time in the regular classroom.

41. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 41 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 Characterize children with disabilities and their schooling –Review Who are children with disabilities? What characterizes children with learning disabilities? How would you describe children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder? What kind of treatment are they typically given? What are some issues in educating children with disabilities?

42. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 42 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 –Reflect Think back to your own schooling and how children with learning disabilities or ADHD either were or were not diagnosed. Were you aware of such individuals in your classes? Were they helped by specialists? You may know one or more individuals with a learning disability or ADHD. Ask them about their educational experiences and whether they believe schools could have done a better job of helping them.

43. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 43 Achievement Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation –The behavioral perspective emphasizes the importance of extrinsic motivation, which involves doing something to obtain something else (the activity is a means to an end). –The cognitive perspective stresses the importance of intrinsic motivation, which involves the internal motivation of doing something for its own sake (an end in itself).

44. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 44 Achievement Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation (continued) –Self-Determination and Choice Researchers have found that students’ internal motivation and intrinsic interest in school tasks increase when students have some choice and some opportunities to take personal responsibility for their learning (Stipek, 1996, 2002).

45. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 45 Achievement Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation (continued) –Extrinsic Rewards and Internal Motivation Although in some situations, rewards can undermine learning, rewards that convey information about students’ mastery can increase intrinsic motivation by increasing their sense of competence.

46. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 46 Achievement Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation (continued) –Developmental Shifts in Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Grading practices in middle and junior high school reinforce external motivation; children lock into the increasing emphasis on grades, which leads to a drop in internal motivation. Middle and junior high schools are more impersonal, formal, evaluative, and competitive than elementary schools; when students compare themselves with other students, relative performance encourages extrinsic rather than intrinsic motivation.

47. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 47 Achievement –Developmental Shifts in Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation (continued) Students who feel they have supportive, caring teachers are more strongly motivated to engage in academic work than students with unsupportive, uncaring teachers (McCombs, 2001; Ryan & Deci, 2000).

48. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 48 Achievement Students’ Descriptions of Teachers Who Care Refer to Figure 17.5

49. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 49 Achievement Mastery Motivation –Children with a mastery orientation focus on the task rather than on their ability, have positive affect, and generate solution-oriented strategies that improve their performance. –Children with a helpless orientation focus on their inadequacies, often attribute their difficulty to a lack of ability, and display negative affect. This orientation undermines their performance.

50. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 50 Achievement Mastery Motivation (continued) –Performance Orientation An orientation that involves being concerned with the outcome rather than the process; winning is what matters most. Mastery-oriented students focus on the sense that they are effectively interacting with their environment; they like to win, but developing their skills is more important.

51. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 51 Achievement Attribution –Attributions are the explanations people give for behavior. Dweck emphasizes the importance of whether students believe their performance depends on their effort or on some fixed ability, in which event they are not likely to have a mastery orientation.

52. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 52 Achievement Self-Efficacy –Self-efficacy is the belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes. –Albert Bandura (1997, 2001, 2004) believes that self- efficacy is a critical factor in whether or not students achieve. –Dale Schunk (1991, 2004) believes that self-efficacy influences a student’s choice of activities; students with high self-efficacy are more likely to expend effort and persist longer at a learning task than students with low self-efficacy.

53. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 53 Achievement Goal Setting, Planning, and Self-Monitoring –Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are specific, proximal, and challenging (Bandura, 2001, 2004; Schunk, 2004). –High-achieving children monitor their learning and systematically evaluate their progress toward a goal more than low-achieving students do.

54. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 54 Achievement Ethnicity and Culture –Ethnicity Graham (1986, 1990) notes that middle-income African American students, like their white middle- income peers, have high achievement expectations and understand the role of effort in success. Many ethnic minority students living in poverty also must deal with conflict between the values of their neighborhood and those of the majority culture, a lack of high-achieving role models, and poor schools (McLoyd, 2000).

55. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 55 Achievement Ethnicity and Culture (continued) –Cross-Cultural Comparisons Asian students consistently outperform American students in mathematics. Asian teachers spend more time teaching math than American teachers do, and Asian students are more likely to do math homework. American parents have lower expectations than Asian parents for their children’s education and achievement; American parents are more likely to believe that children’s math achievement is due to innate ability rather than to effort and training.

56. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 56 Achievement Mothers’ Beliefs about the Factors Responsible for Children’s Math Achievement in Three Countries Refer to Figure 17.6

57. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 57 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 4 Explain the development of achievement –Review What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? How are they related to achievement? How are mastery, helpless, and performance orientations linked with achievement? What is attribution and how is it linked with achievement?

58. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 58 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 4 –Review (continued) What is self-efficacy, and how is it related to achievement? Why are goal setting, planning, and monitoring important in achievement? How do cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic variations influence achievement?

59. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 59 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 4 –Reflect Think about several of your own past schoolmates who showed low motivation in school. Why do you think they behaved that way? What teaching strategies may have helped them?

60. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 60 Summary Contemporary approaches to student learning include the direct instruction, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist approaches. Demands for accountability have produced extensive state- mandated tests, which have strengths and weaknesses and are controversial. Variations in early childhood education include the child- centered kindergarten and the Montessori approach; developmentally appropriate education is an important theme.

61. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 61 Summary Compensatory education has tried to break through the poverty cycle with programs like Project Head Start. Model preschool programs have been shown to have positive long-term effects on children’s development. A special concern is that early elementary education proceeds too much on the basis of negative feedback to children. The transition from elementary school to middle or junior high school can be stressful; school dropout rates for Native American and Latino adolescents remain high.

62. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 62 Summary Children in poverty face problems at home and at school that present barriers to their learning. The school experiences of students from different ethnic groups vary considerably. It is important for teachers to have positive expectations for students of color. Comer believes the team approach is the best way to educate children from diverse backgrounds, and Aronson created the jigsaw classroom to reduce racial tension.

63. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 63 Summary Approximately 10% of U.S. children receive special services because they have a disability; slightly more than 50% of these children have a learning disability. Learning disabilities include 3 components: (1) a minimum IQ level, (2) significant difficulty in a school-related area (especially reading or mathematics), and (3) exclusion of severe emotional disorders, second-language background, sensory disabilities, or specific neurological deficits.

64. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 64 Summary Dyslexia is a category of learning disabilities that involves a severe impairment in the ability to read and spell. Interventions for children with disabilities often focus on improving reading skills. ADHD is a disability in which children consistently show problems in one or more of these areas: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Federal laws require that children with a disability receive a free, appropriate education and be provided adequate services.

65. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 65 Summary Extrinsic motivation involves doing something to obtain something else (a means to an end); intrinsic motivation involves the internal motivation to do something for its own sake (an end in itself). Most experts recommend a classroom climate in which students are intrinsically motivated to learn. A mastery orientation focuses on the task rather than ability, involves positive affect, and includes solution-oriented strategies.

66. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 66 Summary A helpless orientation focuses on personal inadequacies, attributing difficulty to lack of ability; negative affect is also present. Performance orientation involves concern with achievement outcome rather than the achievement process. Attributions may focus on internal causes or external causes; attributing results to effort fosters achievement.

67. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 67 Summary Self-efficacy is the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes. Setting specific, proximal (short-term), and challenging goals benefits students’ self-efficacy and achievement. Self-monitoring is a key aspect of self-regulation and benefits student learning. Socioeconomic status typically predicts achievement better than ethnicity.

68. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 68 Summary U.S. children do more poorly on math and science achievement tests than children in Asian countries, and their poor performance has been linked to characteristics of U.S. schools and parents.