1. Systems Thinking and SSM Properties of systems “Hard” and “soft” approaches Introduction to Soft Systems Methodology Some SSM techniques

2. First…. What is a system? What is systems thinking?

3. A systems typology Natural systems – living and non-living, from subatomic to ecosystems and galaxies. Designed systems Physical, e.g. train, chainsaw, dam Abstract, systems of knowledge or philosophy Human activity systems – “purposeful wholes”, e.g. UNN, the gas industry, the City Council. Social systems – overlap natural and human activity systems, e.g. family. (Checkland, 1981)

4. Socio-Technical Systems Systems ideas have been applied to organisational behaviour in many ways. For example, the concept of socio-technical systems sees organisational systems as having Technical subsystem – formal processes, tasks, machinery, programs, with official goals, etc. Social subsystem – human concerns & needs; personal goals, views & interests; communications, motivation, job satisfaction etc.

5. Characteristics of Systems A boundary Hierarchy – parts which may themselves be systems Emergence Systems (and subsystems) have properties which their contituent parts do not possess Examples of emergent properties? Communication – parts can interact Control processes – to ensure continuity

6. Control - Feedback System activities Control mechanism Input Output Control Feedback Negative feedback corrects a tendency Positive feedback enhances a tendency

7. Control - Feedforward System activities Control mechanism Input Output Control Feedforward

8. Open & closed systems Open systems Interact with their environment through inputs and outputs that cross the system boundary Include organisational and living systems Closed systems Don’t interact with their environment. (Or, take in only energy, e.g. the biosphere or various mechanical gadgets.) These are best viewed as relative terms.

9. Two well known phrases Reductionism. Simplification for analysis Computer people do this often! Holism Dividing into parts loses connectedness & emergent properties. Example? Divide and conquer! The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

10. “Hard” and “soft” problems Hard problems: Structured, clear when a solution is found, Subject to reasoning, problems about “how”. Often in engineering, science. Dealing with blown fuse, designing a bridge, etc. Soft problems: Unstructured, messy, no clear solutions. Questions about “what” to do. Often in organisations, social situations, politics – situations involving people.

11. Hard and soft systems thinking “Hard” systems thinking treats parts of the world as systems, and investigates/ engineers them. Systems taken to exist. “Soft” systems thinking uses a process of enquiry which is systemic. This uses systems models to help find out about the real world, so we may explore the consequences of choosing to view elements as if they were systems, but the systems we model are notional, not representations of the world. (See Checkland, 1999)

12. Experience teaches: “Hard” problems are susceptible to “hard” approaches “Soft” problems need “soft” approaches.

13. What is SSM? A systemic process of learning For exploring problem situations in organisations For suggesting changes which will be helpful and achievable

14. SSM - Basic Overview - Perceived real-world problem situation Models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world-view Action to improve… (Adapted from Checkland & Scholes, ) Choose & build Comparison of models with the problem situation, to identify…

15. SSM Overview - activities - Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world- view Taking action to improve... Debating the situation using the models (Comparison) -Identifying desirable and culturally feasible changes -Finding accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable … Understanding of the organisation, including cultural and political analysis

16. Using SSM Not intended as a prescriptive set of steps. Start anywhere, finish anywhere, repeat ad lib. Adapt as necessary.

17. Why SSM? Practical and flexible approach to managing change Holistic approach that takes a wide range of factors into account, inc. social and political aspects Aims to suggest change that is meaningful and feasible in the organisational context Can be highly participative

18. Why SSM for IS? It’s NOT a complete development method. But has been extended with techniques for IS Useful for IS-related problem “solving.” Used in Feasibility Requirements capture IS Planning The aim is to have systems which are seen as relevant, fit the organisation, and are used.

19. Example SSM IS projects Recording the activities of community health workers Decision support in a marketing company Providing mission briefings for fighter pilots Managing assignment submission for distance learners

20. SSM Overview - activities - Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world- view Taking action to improve... Debating the situation using the models (Comparison) -Identify desirable and culturally feasible changes -Find accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable … Understanding of the organisation, including cultural and political analysis

21. Entering the problem situation “A situation in which there are perceived to be problems” Don’t concentrate on “the” problem We may enter the problem situation as external consultants, or work on our own problem situations.

22. What to put in a rich picture Structure, e.g. departmental or organisation boundaries, geographical considerations, people and institutions. Process - activities, information or material flows. Climate - the relationship between structure and process, and any associated problems. ‘Soft facts’ - concerns, conflicts, views. Environment - external interested bodies, factors affecting the organisation.

23. Commonly used symbols Conflict Concerns, views People External observers / interested parties A boundary How can I….? £ Flows

25. SSM Overview - activities - Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world- view Taking action to improve... Debating the situation using the models (Comparison) -Identify desirable and culturally feasible changes -Find accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable … Understanding of the organisation, including cultural and political analysis

26. Thinking about the problem situation What important tasks are taking place? What issues have you identified? Name “relevant systems” (of human activity)

27. Relevant systems Relevant to exploring, debating and changing the problem situation Relevant from some “world view” - Weltanschauung More than one - choose a variety of views, ideas Phrase as “A system to ….” Identify the W that makes them meaningful and the main transformation.

28. Relevant systems (2) Primary task systems deal with the main task of the organisation, from some viewpoint. Issue-based systems deal with issues, problems etc. Not always a clear-cut distinction, but aim to include both!

29. SSM Overview - activities - Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world- view Taking action to improve... Debating the situation using the models (Comparison) -Identify desirable and culturally feasible changes -Find accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable … Understanding of the organisation, including cultural and political analysis

30. Root definition (1) Short definition of a relevant system Defines who would be involved, purpose, viewpoint from which it’s defined, “A system to….” Remember: NOT a description of what happens in the real world. We usually work with several definitions

31. Root definition (2) “ Who is doing what for whom, to whom are they answerable, what assumptions are being made, and in what environment.” (Checkland) However, we use the CATWOE terminology

32. CATWOE Customers beneficiaries/victims Actorsthose who do T Transformation input  output Weltanschauung world view, makes T meaningful Owner responsible (who could stop T?) Environment “givens”, constraints T InputOutput

33. Building RD & using CATWOE Either: Write a root definition, Validate it using CATWOE as a checklist Define any missing elements Rewrite RD to include them Or: Define CATWOE Write a RD that includes all of them. Some leading practitioners criticise this approach.

34. Root Definition Example A Department of Computing owned system by which academic staff define a unit syllabus in accordance with university standards for unit definition such that the unit will make the expected contribution to the route, provide clear learning objectives for students and be deliverable in practice within the constraints on staff time and other resources within the department.

35. CATWOE for unit planning example CStudents AAcademic staff T Route’s requirement for unit  requirement met by unit syllabus meeting criteria stated (i.e. objectives, deliverable in practice) WImportance of clear definition of units to route planning and student learning; units should have a defined place within the route. ODepartment EUniversity standards for unit definition, time and resource constraints

36. Another RD example A system to provide regular checkups, advice and treatment to diabetic adults in the Southdown & Downsville area by means of outpatient appointments at Southdown General Hospital in order to empower them to control their diabetes.

37. CATWOE for clinic RD CATWOECATWOE

38. CATWOE from clinic RD C - diabetic adults in the Southdown & Downsville area A - ? T - patients with current level of support --> patients with the necessary support, advice and treatment to enable them to manage their diabetes W - O/P care can provide support that will enable people to control their diabetes. Patients as responsible managers of their own treatment, not passive recipients O - ? E - SGH, O/P clinic, Southdown & Downsville area

39. Revised CATWOE for clinic RD C - diabetic adults in the Southdown & Downsville area A - medical, nursing & admin staff of the clinic. T - patients with current level of support --> patients with the necessary support, advice and treatment to enable them to manage their diabetes W - O/P care can provide support that will enable people to control their diabetes. Patients as responsible actors in their own treatment, not passive recipients O - SGH management E - SGH, O/P clinic, Southdown & Downsville area, HA budget and staffing constraints.

40. Revised clinic RD An SGH-management-owned system, staffed by medical, nursing and clerical staff of the hospital and operating within the Health Authority’s constraints on budget and staffing, to provide regular checkups, advice and treatment to diabetic adults in the Southdown & Downsville area by means of outpatient clinic visits at Southdown General Hospital, in order to ensure that all are empowered to control their diabetes.

41. SSM Overview - activities - Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world- view Taking action to improve... Debating the situation using the models (Comparison) -Identify desirable and culturally feasible changes -Find accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable … Understanding of the organisation, including cultural and political analysis

42. Conceptual modelling Identify minimum necessary set of activities Define topics & time allocation Document unit to university standards Appreciate university standards for unit definition Appreciate unit’s expected contribution to route Define learning objectives Decide method of delivery Appreciate time & resource constraints

43. Conceptual model 2 Document unit to university standards 1 Appreciate unit’s expected contribution to route 7 Define topics & time allocation 5 Decide method of delivery 6 Define learning objectives 3 Appreciate time & resource constraints 4 Appreciate university standards for unit definition 8 Define assessment criteria 9 Monitor 1-7 10 Take control action

44. The 3 (or 5) E’s Efficacy: does the means work, does it actually achieve the transformation? Efficiency: does it use the minimum necessary resources? Effectiveness: is the transformation meeting the longer term aim? Also Ethicality and Elegance.

45. SSM Overview - Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world- view Taking action to improve... Debating the situation using the models (Comparison) -Identify desirable and culturally feasible changes -Find accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable … Understanding of the organisation, including cultural and political analysis

46. What else? Your workbook tells you about: Comparing models with the real world/rich picture Debating desirable and feasible changes Cultural analysis (Analysis 1-3) Don’t neglect these: they may not have characteristic techniques, but they’re vital

47. To Do. Workbook. Sections 1-5 to be completed before week 5’s seminar; The rest, including the seminar preparation in section 7, by week 6’s seminar. Reading: Another SSM overview (see workbook) Systems ideas from Bennett et al (2002/2005) §1.3

48. References / More SSM books Bennett, S., McRobb, S. & Farmer R. (2005), Systems Analysis and Design using UML, 3 rd edn., McGraw-Hill. (An earlier edition will do for this.) Checkland, P. (1999), Soft Systems Methodology: A 30- year Retrospective, Chichester: Wiley. P. Checkland & J. Scholes (1991), Soft Systems Methodology in Action. Wiley. Wilson, B. (1990), Systems: Concepts, Methodologies and Applications. Patching, D. (1990), Practical Soft Systems Analysis. Pitman. (Try this only if you don’t get on with the others.)