1. Key Issue #4

2. Environmental Determinism
Cultural Ecology
The geographic study of human-environment relationships
Environmental Determinism
The idea that the physical environment causes social development.
Possibilism
The physical environment may limit human actions, but people have the ability to adjust to the environment.

3. A Case Study of Djibouti
usachppm.apgea.army.mil/hiomtb/content/.../DJIBOUTI_05.06.ppt

4. Where in the world is Djibouti?
Location: Eastern Africa, bordering the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, between Eritrea and Somalia
Geography Note: Strategic location near world's busiest shipping lanes and close to Arabian oilfields; terminus of rail traffic into Ethiopia; mostly wasteland; Lac Assal (Lake Assal) is the lowest point in Africa

5. Physical Environment Topography Climate
Coastal plain and plateau separated by central mountains
Climate
Desert
Torrid
Dry
- Djibouti, which is about the size of Massachusetts, has a total land area of about 21,883 square kilometers (8,400 square miles). The country is made up of mostly sand and stone desert and can be divided into three geographic regions.
- A narrow coastal plain rises inland to less than 200 meters (650 feet) above sea level.
A series of mountains backs the coastal plain, with a peak elevation of approximately 2,000 meters (6,600 feet).
The inland plateau rises from 300 to 1,500 meters (1,000 to 5,000 feet) above sea level. Lake Assal, a salt lake 130 kilometers (80 miles) west of Djibouti City and about 140 meters (470 feet) below sea level, is the lowest point on the African continent. Lake Abbe (west of Djibouti City) has hot water springs and jagged chalk needles rising up to 50 yards. Djibouti has several active volcanoes; the last to erupt was Ardoukoba in 1978.

6. Physical Environment
Djibouti's desert climate has two seasons. The hot summer (May through September) brings sparse rains and has mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures of 38°C (101° F) and 28°C (82° F), respectively, with daytime highs occasionally exceeding 50°C (122° F). A relatively "cool" season (October through April) has sparse rains and mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures of 31°C (87° F) and 24°C (75° F), respectively, with daytime highs occasionally exceeding 40°C (104° F). Temperature extremes can increase the potential for heat injuries, including dehydration, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke.

7. Physical Environment
Mean annual rainfall is less than 500 millimeters (20 inches) countrywide, although many areas receive much less rainfall. Along the coast, precipitation is most likely from November through March. Inland, rain more commonly falls from April through October. Sandstorms occur more frequently during the dry season.
Djibouti has two types of strong winds, the khamsin and the saba. The khamsin occurs during summer afternoons and is strong (winds exceeding 50 knots), hot, and sand-laden. The saba, on the other hand, is a cool morning gravity wind that is occasionally accompanied by light rain.

8. Environmental Health Risk
Greatest short-term health risks
Water contaminated with raw sewage or runoff containing fecal pathogens and water contaminated with industrial waste
Extreme heat
Picture =Leaking container at a shipping port
Key Judgments
The greatest short-term health risks are associated with water contaminated with raw sewage or runoff containing fecal pathogens and water contaminated with industrial waste.
The physical environment poses additional risks from extreme heat.
Background
The economy of Djibouti is based on service industries connected with the country's strategic location and status as a free trade zone in northeast Africa. The country has few natural resources and little industry, though the oil industry is a key element in the economy, as the country has become a regional supply center for petroleum products. Light industry in Djibouti is limited to mineral water bottling, tanning, and animal food processing plants and a dairy. Djibouti is hoping to gain foreign investments to begin cement, tiles, paints, and meat processing industries.
Living and sanitary conditions in Djibouti have been made worse by years of civil conflict, unemployment, drought, and refugee encroachment. The main environmental contamination issue is water contamination by raw sewage and industrial wastes.
Regulation and protection of the environment in Djibouti fall under the jurisdiction of several governmental bodies, including the Ministry of Housing, Town Planning and the Environment. Regulations are minimal, and enforcement is ineffective.

9. Environmental Issues Food Soil Water Fecal and chemical contamination
Localized to specific areas surrounding industrial facilities and waste disposal sites
Water
Municipal water treatment and public sanitation services inadequate
Persistent discharge of untreated sewage into surface waters and coastal areas
Discharges from offshore tanker traffic contribute to petrochemical contamination of Djibouti's coastline
Food:
Contamination of food with fecal pathogens may result from use of human and animal fertilizers and unsanitary food preparation techniques. Chemical contamination of food may occur from industrial activities, uptake of chemicals in soil, pesticide and fertilizer misuse, and improper processing or storage.
Short-term exposure to very high levels of insecticides may cause acute health effects including excitation and seizures, difficulty breathing, and gastrointestinal (GI) upset, and may be fatal in extreme cases. Long-term exposure to very low levels presents a minimal risk to human health.
Soil:
Soil contamination is localized to areas near industry and waste disposal sites and is unlikely to be a threat in the absence of wind-blown dust, active digging, or migration of contaminants from soil into ground water. Soil contamination usually presents a low risk to human health, although contaminated areas should be avoided when feasible.
Water:
The persistent discharge of untreated sewage into surface waters and coastal areas is a serious pollution problem. Although a wastewater treatment plant exists in Djibouti City, it is subject to poor maintenance, frequent breakdowns, and power disruptions, and sewage is dumped in streams, the Gulf of Tadjoura, or into the desert. Drinking water distribution systems are subject to structural and equipment breakdowns and power disruptions, resulting in microbial contamination. Discharges from offshore tanker traffic contribute to petrochemical contamination of Djibouti's coastline.

10. Infectious Diseases Vector-borne Diseases
Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases
diarrhea (bacterial & protozoal), hep A/E, typhoid/paratyphoid fever
Cholera
Vector-borne Diseases
Malaria
Chickungunya, Leishmaniasis, Crimean-Congo fever, Dengue, Leishmaniasis, Rickettsioses, Rift Valley fever, Sand-fly fever, West Nile fever, Yellow fever
Sanitation is extremely poor throughout the country, including major urban areas. Local food and water sources (including ice) are heavily contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, and parasites. Effective disease surveillance does not exist within the country. Only a small fraction of diseases are identified or reported. Assessment of food- and waterborne risk was based primarily on the overall lack of public health infrastructure to ensure safe food and water. Diarrheal diseases can be expected to temporarily incapacitate a very high percentage of personnel within days if local food, water, or ice is consumed. Hepatitis A and typhoid fever can cause prolonged illness in a smaller percentage; hepatitis E may also affect a small percentage.

11. Infectious Diseases Cont.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
HIV, Hepatitis B
gonorrhea / chlamydia
Water-contact Diseases
leptospirosis, schistosomiasis
Respiratory Diseases
meningococcal meningitis, tuberculosis
The sub-Saharan Africa region has the most widespread HIV/AIDS epidemic in the world, affecting all segments of the population. Heterosexual contact is the predominant mode of transmission. Carrier rates for hepatitis B are also high.
Meningococcal meningitis occurs at significant levels in the local population, and periodic outbreaks occur. Tuberculosis is also highly endemic, increasing the risk of latent infection and skin test conversion.

12. Economic Issues
Economy is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location and status as a open or free trade (imports and exports) zone in the Horn of Africa
Scarce rainfall limits crop production
Few natural resources and little industry
Heavily dependent on foreign aid
Unemployment figures of nearly 60 per cent
its economy is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location and status as a open or free trade (imports and exports) zone in the Horn of Africa. Two-thirds of Djibouti's inhabitants live in the capital city; the remainder are mostly nomadic herders. Scanty rainfall limits crop production to fruits and vegetables, and most food stuffs must be imported. Djibouti provides services as both a transit port for the region and an international transshipment and refueling center. Imports and exports from landlocked neighbour Ethiopia constitute 85 per cent of port activity at Djibouti's container terminal. Djibouti has few natural resources and little industry. The country is, therefore, heavily dependent on foreign aid to aid support its balance of payments and to finance development projects. An uneployment figures of nearly 60 per cent perpetuates to be a serious problem. While inflation rates is not a concern, due to the fixed tie of the Djiboutian franc to the USA dollar, the artificially high value of the Djiboutian franc adversely affects Djibouti's balance of payments.

13. Economic issues
Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35 per cent between 1999 and 2006 because of recession or slump, civil war, and a high general populace growth rate (including immigrants and refugees)
Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35 per cent between 1999 and 2006 because of recession or slump, civil war, and a high general populace growth rate (including immigrants and refugees). Faced with a multitude of economic difficulties, the state has fallen in debts on long-term external public state debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid donors.

14. Social Issues
Literacy rate of the population over 15 years of age as 46 percent (males 60 percent; females 33 percent)
Total enrollment at primary and secondary schools was equivalent 26 percent of the school-age population.
No university in Djibouti--technical skills are often found lacking.
In 1987, government statistics indicated that 66 percent of the population were able to read, but in 1995 a new estimation measured the literacy rate of the population over 15 years of age as 46 percent (males 60 percent; females 33 percent). In the period from 1991 to 1992 there were 33,500 pupils, 66 schools, and 707 teachers in primary education. In 1996, the total enrollment at primary and secondary schools was equivalent to 26 percent of the school-age population. Education is limited primarily to urban areas, where teacher strikes are frequent. There is no university in Djibouti, and technical skills are often found lacking.

15. Young girls in Djibouti face a difficult path to their schooling
Young girls in Djibouti face a difficult path to their schooling. Only about 40 percent of girls attend primary school, and after that, many are forced to drop out because their parents don’t want them traveling farther to middle schools, which are limited

16. Social Issues
Life-expectancy estimates are 49 years for males and 53 years for females in 2001
Infant mortality stands at 102 per 1,000, (the U.S. rate is 7 per 1,000).
There is a 600-bed hospital in the capital and a 60-bed maternity and pediatric hospital in Balbala.
Large prostitute population=high incidence of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV.
Life-expectancy estimates are 49 years for males and 53 years for females in Infant mortality stands at 102 per 1,000, which marks an improvement from the past but is still a long way from what can be achieved (the U.S. rate is 7 per 1,000). There is a 600-bed hospital in the capital and a 60-bed maternity and pediatric hospital in Balbala. There are 6 medical centers and 21 dispensaries cover the interior of the country. Virtually all medicines can be obtained, but since they must be imported they are expensive. The large prostitute population, attracted by the French troops stationed in Djibouti, leads to a high incidence of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV.
Read more: Djibouti Poverty and wealth, Information about Poverty and wealth in Djibouti

17. “Location Gives Tiny State Prime Access to Big Riches” by Jeffrey Gettlemen
Considering this information and the article you read for homework, let’s consider how Djibouti exhibits
Environmental determinism?
Possibilism?