1. Energy and Environment David Levinson

2. World Energy Use

3. US Energy Use

9. Energy is Required to Move Mass

10. Gas Stations are Everywhere

11. Energy Issues “Energy Independence” –Domestic Production, –Minimize Reliance on Foreign, unstable producers Environmental effects Economic effects

12. Energy Policies Pricing –Gas Tax –Feebates –Pay at the Pump Insurance Technology –Alternative Fuels –Advanced Vehicle Design Standards –CAFE: Corporate Average Fuel Economy

13. Environmental Externalities of Transportation What is an externality? Name some []

14. Environmental Externalities of Transportation Air Pollution Urban Heat Island Global Climate Change Water Pollution Noise Pollution Visual Impacts Community cohesion / severance Biodiversity issues / ecological severance Cultural resources

15. Air Quality Clean Air Acts 1970, 1977,1990. Urban air quality improving or worsening? Leaded Gas banned, vehicle catalytic converters and improved pollution control devices fuel reformulation and vehicle inspection There is a technological solution. (There is a behavioral solution too which people are not willing to undertake) Collectively all behavioral TCMs have reduced pollution maybe 1-2% However pollution is still a bad thing Autos improvement on previous technologies such as horse, but ICE had problems compared w/steam or electric. Primary health, but also vegetation damage and material effects (building deterioration).

16. Trends: Percentage Change

18. Standards Carbon Monoxide (CO) 8-hour Average9 ppm(10 mg/m 3 )Primary 1-hour Average35 ppm(40 mg/m 3 )Primary Nitrogen Dioxide (NO 2 ) Annual Arithmetic Mean0.053 ppm(100 µg/m 3 )Primary & Secondary Ozone (O 3 ) 1-hour Average0.12 ppm(235 µg/m 3 )Primary & Secondary 8-hour Average **0.08 ppm(157 µg/m 3 )Primary & Secondary Lead (Pb) Quarterly Average1.5 µg/m 3 Primary & Secondary Particulate (PM 10) Particles with diameters of 10 micrometers or less Annual Arithmetic Mean50 µg/m 3 Primary & Secondary 24-hour Average150 µg/m 3 Primary & Secondary Particulate (PM 2.5) Particles with diameters of 2.5 micrometers or less Annual Arithmetic Mean **15 µg/m 3 Primary & Secondary 24-hour Average **65 µg/m 3 Primary & Secondary Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 ) Annual Arithmetic Mean0.03 ppm(80 µg/m 3 )Primary 24-hour Average0.14 ppm(365 µg/m 3 )Primary 3-hour Average0.50 ppm(1300 µg/m 3 )Secondary

19. Non-Attainment CO

20. Non-Attainment Ozone (O 3 )

21. Non-Attainment: PM-10 (Ramsey Co.)

22. Non-Attainment: Lead (Pb)

23. Non-Attainment: SO 2

24. Non-Attainment: NO 2 UNITED STATES has no Nitrogen Dioxide nonattainment areas.

25. Twin Cities (1998) COPbNO2O3 PM10 SO2 8-hrQMaxAM1-hr8-hrWtdAM2 nd Max 24-hr Arithm etic Mean (ppm)(µg/m3)(ppm) (µg/m3) (ppm) 50.470.0220.090.0835880.0040.030

26. Transportation Planning on Trial (Garrett and Wachs) Described Air Quality Conformity Process: New projects in metro area Transportation Improvement Programs must meet Air Quality Standards - determined through models. Environmental Groups believed MPO (Bay Area) was playing games, meeting outdated standards, achieving absolute rather than relative change. Went to courts, largely supported environmental groups. Failure to conform to Air quality conformity process will result in suspension of highway dollars (the so-called “Death Penalty”).

27. Greenhouse Gases (CO 2 )

29. Water Pollution Issues Run-off of polluted waters Less pervious surface Wetland destruction Plant and animal injury.

30. Noise pollution: Problems: Sleep interference, speech interference, annoyance, hearing impairment, vibration Standards - % time noise level exceeded Assessment - Measurement and models Solutions –Prevention- mufflers, stage III aircraft, antinoise –Protection-insulation, double windows, noise wall –Buyout, change land use –Move noise generator –Containment

31. Environmental Impact Statement A written EIS is required for all federal projects Just because there is an environmental effect does not necessarily stop project, BUT –Tends to slow development –Involves public and public –Increases awareness (can no longer plead ignorance). –More efficient use of infrastructure Project may be stopped if it violates environmental laws (wetlands, endangered species, Clean Air Act /TEA 21 rules). What is in EIS? –Purpose and Need for Project –Alternatives –Affected environment and consequences.

32. Battery Batteries were developed in late 18th and early 19th century. Chemical reactions cause electrons (- charge) to build up at anode, which powers something (lightbulb, car), and then travels to the cathode, where they want to be. The electrons then travel from the cathode, through the electrolyte, to the anode. However, they use up the electrolyte on the way.

33. Steam, Electric, Gasoline In early years of automobile product (1890s, 1900s) Steam, Electric, and Gasoline power were competing. Electrics were backed by significant figures like Thomas Edison, as well as many entrepreneurs. Gasoline engines were backed by future significant individuals like Henry Ford (who had worked at Detroit Edison), and many other entrepreneurs. By 1913, Henry Ford was loaning money to Edison to develop EV. Clearly Electric won. Why? Electrics had shorter range and lower speed. Could add more batteries, but each additional battery added weight, which reduced the efficiency of other batteries. 1909 advent of self-starter in gasoline cars. Note self-starter was electrically (battery) powered. Gasoline-powered vehicles become huge market for batteries. This can be thought of as a type of Endo-symbiosis, like the chloroplasts in plants or mitochondria in animals become organelles in cells.

34. Hybrid-Electric Vehicles 1979 Dave Arthurs of Springdale, Arkansas, spent $1,500 turning a standard Opel GT into a hybrid car that could get 75 miles per gallon, using a six-horsepower lawnmower engine, a four-hundred- amp electric motor, and an array of six-volt batteries. Mother Earth News used the Arthurs plan to build their own hybrid, which averaged 83.6 miles per gallon. Sixty thousand Mother Earth News readers wrote in for the plans, when the magazine published their results. US Hybrid Sales 1905 An American engineer named H. Piper filed a patent for a petrol-electric hybrid vehicle. His idea was to use an electric motor to assist an internal-combustion engine, enabling it to achieve 25 mph. 1969 The GM 512, a very lightweight experimental hybrid car, ran entirely on electric power up to ten miles per hour. From ten to thirteen miles per hour, it ran on a combination of batteries and its two-cylinder gas engine. Above thirteen miles per hour, the GM 512 ran on gasoline. It could only reach 40 miles per hour. 1976 U.S. Congress enacted Public Law 94-413, the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1976. Among the law ﾕ s objectives were to work with industry to improve batteries, motors, controllers and other hybrid- electric components. 1997 Toyota Prius went on sale to the public in Japan. First-year sales were nearly 18,000. 1999 Honda released the two-door Insight, the first hybrid car to hit the mass market in the United States. The Insight wins numerous awards, and received EPA mileage ratings of 61 mpg city and 70 mpg highway. 2000 Toyota released the Toyota Prius, the first hybrid four-door sedan available in the United States.

35. Advantages/ Disadvantages of Hybrid Technology What are the advantages and disadvantages of hybrid technology? []

36. Fuel Cells (How Stuff Works.com) The anode, the negative post of the fuel cell, has several jobs. It conducts the electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so that they can be used in an external circuit. It has channels etched into it that disperse the hydrogen gas equally over the surface of the catalyst. The cathode, the positive post of the fuel cell, has channels etched into it that distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It also conducts the electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst, where they can recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water. The electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane. This specially treated material, which looks something like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap, only conducts positively charged ions. The membrane blocks electrons. The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so that the maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the PEM. Anode side:2H2 => 4H+ + 4e- Cathode side: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- => 2H2O Net reaction: 2H2 + O2 => 2H2O

37. Where Does the Hydrogen Come From? (The oxygen comes from the air) We do not have a hydrogen distribution system We may need to produce hydrogen on vehicle using a reformer, which transforms hydrocarbon or alcohol fuels (e.g. natural gas/methanol/gasoline) into hydrogen. They can be stored in tanks, but everyone fears the Hindenburg scenario. Alternatively, we may be able to store hydrogen packs on vehicles that can be easily replaced or recharged.

38. Difference between Battery and Fuel Cell (And Capacitor) Electrolyte in battery gets used up Catalyst in fuel cell does not get used up. As long as fuel is supplied, fuel cell will continue to work. Capacitors (which pass alternating current but not direct current) release short bursts of energy (think lightning, or a water tower), and can be coupled with other energy sources (e.g. batteries) to provide peak energy (acceleration) when needed, while the battery can provide the steady energy.

39. Programs Pushing Fuel Cells FreedomCAR Partnership: A partnership between the U.S. Department of Energy and industry with the goal of developing emission- and petroleum-free cars and light trucks, including fuel cell vehicles. FreedomCAR Partnership: California Fuel Cell Partnership: A collaborative of auto makers, energy companies, fuel cell technology companies, and government agencies working together to advance fuel cell vehicle technology. California Fuel Cell Partnership: Fuel Cells 2000: A non-profit educational organization formed to promote the development and early commercialization of fuel cells and related fuels and technologies.Fuel Cells 2000: National Hydrogen Association: An organization designed as a catalyst for information exchange and cooperative projects among industry, government, and research/academic organizations.National Hydrogen Association: Hydrogen Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technology Program: The lead Federal agency for directing and integrating activities in hydrogen and fuel cell research and development.Hydrogen Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technology Program:

40. Questions?

41. Gasoline vs. Ethanol vs. Diesel