1. The Curricular Process1
OBJECTIVE
& GOALS 6
ASSESSMENT 5
IMPLEMENTATION 2
SELECTION
OF CONTENT 4
INSTRUCTION 3
STRUCTURING OF
CONTENT

2. Goals and Objectives Society Students Disciplines Cognitive
&
objectives
Cognitive
Psychomotor
Affective
Domains

3. Bloom’s Taxonomy Cognitive Domain Low Level Skills Knowledge-Recall
knowledge of
information
Low
Level
Skills
Comprehension (understanding)
all the calculations in science
Application
applying scientific principles to other situations

4. making judgment based on evidence and external criteria
Analyzing
break down material to its fundamentals. (identification of a compound in chemistry)
Synthesis
Formation of new understanding. Bringing together the parts into a new whole
High
Level
Skills
Evaluation
making judgment based on evidence and external criteria

5. Joy, attitude, interest Classroom learning environment
Affective Domain
Receiving
Curiosity
Responding
Valuing
In addition:
Joy, attitude, interest Classroom learning environment

6. Psychomotor
Manipulation
Imitation
Articulation - Sequencing
Precision

7. Basic Goals of Science Education
1. Goals should be comprehensive enough to include
the generally accepted objectives of teaching science
2. Goals should be understandable for other teachers,
administrators and parents.
3. Goals should be neutral; that is, free of bias and
not oriented toward any particular view of science
teaching.
4. Goals should be few in number.
5. Goals should be differ in concepts and abilities
from each other.
6. Goals should be easily applicable to instructional
and learning objectives.

8. Science Content in National Standards for the United States:
 Science as Inquiry
Abilities
 Science Subject Matter
 Science and Technology
 Science in Personal and Social Perspectives
 History and Nature of Science
 Unifying Concepts and Processes

9. The High School Science Golden age of Science Curriculum
Content of Science
The High School Science
1960s’ and early 1970s’
Golden age of Science Curriculum

10. History of Science Curricula Development and Implementation
The 60s’
Main Goal:
Preparing the next generation of:
 Scientists;
 Medical Doctors; and
 Engineers

11. Goals for Teaching Science in the 60 s’
AAAS 1962
1. Science Education should present to the learner
a real picture of Science to include theories and
models.
2. Science Education should present an authentic
picture of a scientist and his method of research.
3. Science Education should present the scientific
method, research method and its limitations.
4. Present Science as a “Structure of Discipline”.
As a result:

12. The Structure of the Discipline
a-b
projects
PSSC - Physical Science Study Committee
HPP - Harvard Project Physics
BSCS - Biological Sciences Curriculum Study
SMSG - School Mathematics Study Group
CBA - Chemical Bond Approach
CHEMS - Chemical Education Materials Study
SCIS - Science Curriculum Improvement Study
ESS - Elementary Science Study
Nuffield Projects - in the UK

13. Some Features In Physics (PSSC) ~ 1960s’
 Fewer topics at greater depth,
 Greater emphasis on laboratory work,
 More emphasis on basic physics,
 Less attention to technological applications,
 Development approach showing origins of
basic ideas of physics, and
 Increased difficulty and rigor of the course.

14. Harvard Project Physics ~ 1970s’
The philosophy of this course is emphasized in eight points.
1. Physics is for everyone.
2. A coherent selection within physics is possible.
3. Doing physics goes beyond physics.
4. Individuals require a flexible course.
5. A multimedia system simulates better learning.
6. The time has come to teach science as one of
the humanities.
7. A physics course should be rewarding to take
8. A physics course should be rewarding to teach.

15. Chemistry Programs: CBA & CHEMSTUDY 1960s’ Schools: 10% 40% of schools
CHEMStudy: Highly based on Experimental
Work

16. ASSUMPTIONS 1
If science is presented in a way it is known to scientists, it will be inherently interesting to all students. 2
Any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development.

17. the “Golden-age” Curricula
Common Elements of
the “Golden-age” Curricula
1. There was less emphasis on social and personal
applications of science and technology than in
the traditional courses.
2. There was more emphasis on abstractions, theory,
and basic science - the structure of scientific
disciplines.
3. There was increased emphasis on discovery -
the modes of inquiry used by scientists.
4. There was frequent use of quantitative techniques.
5. There were newer concepts in subject matter.

18. the “Golden-age” Curricula
Common Elements of
the “Golden-age” Curricula
6. There was an upgrading of teacher competency in
both subject matter and pedagogical skills.
7. There were well integrated and designed teaching
aids to supplement the courses.
8. There was primarily an orientation toward
college-bound students.
9. There were similarities in emphasis and structure
in the high school and junior high school programs.

19. Interdisciplinary Approach to Chemistry
IAC:
Interdisciplinary Approach to Chemistry
Units (Modules)
 Reactions and Reason (Introductory),
 Diversity and Periodicity (Inorganic),
 Form and Function (Organic),
 Molecules in Living Systems (Biochemistry),
 The Heart of the Matter (Nuclear),
 Earth and its Neighbors (Geochemistry),
 The Delicate Balance (Environmental), and
 Communities of Molecules (Physical).

20. Early 80s’: “A Nation at Risk”
300 different Reports were published raising a Concern about School Science:
 Content (Knowledge)
 Practice (experiences provided)
 Goals
 Equity (minorities and Gender issues)

21. “Project Synthesis” Call for:
Yager and Harris in
“Project Synthesis” Call for:
Identifying new Goals for
Teaching and Learning Science
Science for:
 Personal needs
 Societal issues
 Career awareness
 The preparation of Future Scientists

22. Historical Overview of Goals for Science Teaching; The 80s’
Teaching Science for:
 Scientific Knowledge
 Scientific Methods (Process)
 Societal Issues
 Personal Needs (Personal Development)
 Career Awareness

23. Multidimensional approach to School Chemistry
The conceptual structure
of chemistry
The process of chemistry e.g. Inquiry
The technological
manifestations of chemistry
Chemistry as a personally
relevant subject
The cultural aspects
of chemistry
O2(g) O(g) + O(g)
O(g) + O2(g) O3(g)
O3(g) + O(g) O2(g) UV
The societal role and
implications of chemistry

24. It took more than 15 years for a new reform
Major differences between the 60s’ & 90s’
The 90s’: Scientific Literacy for All
One of the Key features STS
”Science and Technology are enterprises that shape, and are shaped by, Human thought and social actions”

25. National Standards and
Scientific Literacy
New Standards in:
 Content (K-12)
 Pedagogy
 Assessment
 Professional Development
 Organization of Teaching and
Learning Science

26. Standards for Science Education
Towards the 21st century
Less emphasis on:
 Knowledge of concepts just for the
presentation of; “Structure of a certain
discipline”.
 Learning subject with out connections
(separation of chemistry and biology
chemistry and physics).
 Separation of Knowledge from process
(inquiry).

27. More emphasis on: Learning concepts in the context of:
 STS (Science -Technology - Society)
 Integration of key scientific concepts
(e.g. Energy, Food, Natural Resources)
 Learning Science using inquiry
(asking questions, hypothesizing)
 Science as personal and societal issues
 History and nature of science

28. Global Science 1. The Grand Oasis in Space
Students build an understanding of ecosystems.
2. Basic Energy/Resource Concepts
Students develop an understanding of the laws
governing energy and mineral resource use.
3. Mineral Resources
Students learn how mineral deposits are formed,
where they are located, and how they are mined.
4. Growth and Population
Students learn about exponential growth and
population issues.
5. Food, Agriculture and Population Interactions
Students examine nutrition and the fundamentals
of food production, modern agricultural practices,
and the world food situation.
6. Energy Today
Students build understandings of the energy
sources for modern societies.

29. Recommendations : 2061
The National Council’s recommendations address the basic dimensions of science literacy, which, in the most general terms are:
Being familiar with the natural world and recognizing both its diversity and its unity
Understanding key concepts and principles of science
Being aware of some of the important ways in which science, mathematics and technology depend upon one another
Knowing that science, mathematics, and technology are human enterprises and knowing what that implies about their strengths and limitations.
Having a capacity for scientific ways of thinking
Using scientific knowledge and ways of thinking for individual and social purposes

30. Content
Scientific Inquiry
Abilities

31. Inquiry Discovery vs. Inquiry Discovery is included in the inquiry
Observing
measuring
Predicting
Inferring
classifying
Formulating a problem
Hypothesizing
Design an experiment
Synthesizing knowledge
Demonstrating attitudes (curiosity)
Inquiry

32. Welch: “A general process by which human beings seek information or understanding. Broadly conceived, inquiry is a way of thought”.
Inquiry teaching is a way of developing the mental process of curiosity and investigation

33. Content Perspectives  Unifying Concepts and Processes
 Science as Inquiry
 Physical Science
 Life Science
 Earth and Space Science
 Science and Technology
 Science in Personal and Social
Perspectives
 History and Nature of Science

34. Disciplines and tools of forensic science

35. Decision making on:
Health
Population
Resources
Environment

36. Changes of ideas
Evidence
Scientific arguments
Criticism
Endeavor

37. STSP
Science
Personal
Personal
Technology
Society

38. Questions Science: What do I want to discover?
Technology: What will I do with it?
Society: How would we use it?
Personal: How would it affect me?

39. Science for all Americans: Benchmarks for Scientific Literacy – Project 2061
- More emphasis on the content
- Covers an array of topics
- “The more is less”

40. The treatment of topics (cell, structure of matter, communication) differs from traditional approach by:
 Softening boundaries
 Connections are emphasized through the use
of important conceptual themes:
- Systems
- Evolution
- Energy (in chemistry, biology, physics,
technology)

41. More specifically it includes: - Benchmarks
 The nature of science
 The nature of mathematics
 The nature of technology
 The physical science
 The living environment
 The human organism
 Human Society
 The designed world
 The mathematical world
 Historical perspectives
 Habits of mind

42. Recommendations : 2061
The National Council’s recommendations address the basic dimensions of science literacy, which, in the most general terms are:
Being familiar with the natural world and recognizing both its diversity and its unity
Understanding key concepts and principles of science
Being aware of some of the important ways in which science, mathematics and technology depend upon one another
Knowing that science, mathematics, and technology are human enterprises and knowing what that implies about their strengths and limitations.
Having a capacity for scientific ways of thinking
Using scientific knowledge and ways of thinking for individual and social purposes

43. Integrated vs Disciplinary Science
Why integrate?
- DNA what is it? A concept in Biology? Chemistry? Forensic science?
- Energy, is it a different concept in Chemistry, Biology, Physics?
- Are we refering to nature of Biology, Physics, Chemistry or Nature of Science?
- How can we teach Photosynthesis without Physics and Chemistry?
- Making science more relevant for our students – working with meaningful problems and issues in the real world or in the lab setting.

44. The U.S National Science Education Standards emphasize:
Problem solving
reasoning
Making connections with other disciplines and prior learning
The need for effective communication of ideas and results.
The need for integration of various areas.

45. The integrated approachvs
Disciplinary Approach

46. Questions asked
 Which one is more interesting for students? (close to their personal life?)
 Which one is more difficult for the teacher? (difficult to implement and organize in a coherent manner)
 Which one presents a more valid picture of science? (nature of science)
 Which one provides us with more opportunities to vary the classroom learning environment?
 What are the difficulties in teaching science by the integrated approach?

47. _______________________________________
First Option
Applications
_______________________________________
disciplines in science (concepts) _______________________________________

48. __________________________________________
Second option
Concepts
__________________________________________
Application – issues

49. Disciplines and tools of forensic science

50. Questions Science: What do I want to discover?
Technology: What will I do with it?
Society: How would we use it?
Personal: How would it affect me?

51. Reasons (Sources) for Misconceptions – Learning Difficulties
 Microscopic nature of phenomenon. (as opposed to macroscopic).
 Prior-knowledge (indigenous)
 Overload of information on memory
concrete
 Developmental stage vs
formal
 Models and simulations (abstraction, nature of models it’s limitations)
 Misconceptions transferred from books or teachers
 Laboratory (practical work)

52. Typical Misconceptions
- Structure of matter (particulate nature)
- Optics
- Galaxy
- Structure of molecules
- Bonding
- Cell and its structure

53. Matter can be represented in three levels (Johnston,1991)
Macroscopic (physical phenomena)
Microscopic (particles)
Symbolic (scientific language)
macro
micro
symbolic
A model for learning

54. Learning Models
s’ and 1970s’, Piaget. Learning occurs when the individual:
- Interacts with the environment
- Passes through different stages of development – each characterized by the ability to perform a cognitive task (concrete Vs formal)
In middle school many students are operating at the concrete level
2 Constructivism: Students construct knowledge by interpreting new experiences in the context of their prior knowledge.
Teachers and students might have different interpretations regarding words and concepts

55. Instructional techniques in Science education
In teaching science:
 Students obtain opportunities to interact physically with learning materials
 Teachers provide materials for instruction (concreteness)
 Teachers vary instructional techniques with the goal in mind to increase effectiveness of teaching

56. Instructional strategy refers to the way in which a science teacher uses:
 Materials
 Media
 Settings
 Behaviors To
Create a learning environment that fosters desirable outcomes

57. Instructional techniques
Student centered
Teacher centered
 Laboratory work (activities)
 Teacher’s demonstration
 PBL
 Whole class discussions (lectures)
 Small group activities
 Inquiry learning
 Computer simulations
 Questions – answers - sessions
 Field - trips

58. Teacher’s role in different instructional techniques
Instructional Strategy
Teacher’s Roles
Lecturing
Providing
Information
Demon-
strating
Managing
Guiding
And
Facilitating
Helping to
Analyze
Data and
Results
Conventional teaching +
(+)
Demonstration
Classroom discussion
Laboratory class
Group learning
Inquiry
Field trip
Computer simulation
Individual learning

59. Causal Influences of Student Learning
(Walberg)
APTITUDE
1. Ability
2. Development
3. Motivation a x b
LEARNING
Affective
Behavioral
Cognitive
INSTRUCTION
4. Amount
5. Quality y z c
ENVIRONMENT
6. Home
7. Classroom
8. Peers
9. Television

60. Literature contains suggestions about how, in the context of school science education student’s motivation to learn can be enhanced:
 Suggestions relating to the nature, structuring and presentation of subject matter
 Suggestions concerning the nature of pedagogical procedures and techniques and of the classroom learning environment

61. Motivational pattern
 Achiever
 Curious
 Conscientious
 Social

62. Motivation Motivation
Type of
Motivation Motivation
 The need to achieve: “the achiever”
 The need to satisfy one’s
curiosity: “the curious”
 The need to discharge duty: “the conscientious”
 The need to affiliate with
other people “the social”

64. This is a call for varying Instruction
Most of the teaching of science is conducted in heterogeneous classes
We must cater for a variety of students of different needs and different motivations
This calls for use of a variety of instructional procedures and techniques

65. Comment on Suitability/Unsuitability
Relating Instructional Features to Students’ Motivational Characteristics
Comment on Suitability/Unsuitability
Examples
Type of Activity
Suitable mainly for students with ‘curiosity’-type motivational pattern
Advocated in many science programs developed in the USA and UK during the 1960s and by NSES
Discovery/inquiry – oriented learning methods and
Problem-solving
Strongly preferred by the ‘curious’, but not other motivational groups which prefer clear teacher direction regarding educational goals
Learning activities without clearly specifiable objectives
Open-ended learning activities (student-centered)
Preferred by ‘achievers’ and conscientious’ students because only low level of risk-taking is needed
Conventional ‘traditional’ instructional procedures, involving frontal teaching (e.g. with clearly defined goals and objectives
Formal teaching with emphasis on information and skill transfer
Suitable for learners with a strong social motivation pattern. However, ’achievers’ are likely to be opposed to an involvement in this type of learning activity
Games, simulations, PBL
Collaborative learning activities

66. Traditional lecture setting Live student – centered community
Questioning Techniques in Science Education
 Questioning , like hitting a baseball, is both an art and a craft.
 Questioning could transfer classroom
from
Traditional lecture setting
Into
Live student – centered community

67. Teachers’ Questioning behavior Technique
Taxonomies of questioning.
Penick, et. al., suggested a practical approach.
HRASE
Explanation
History
Speculation
Relationships
Applications
Based on students’ experiences (e.g. experience in the lab)
Nature of phenomena: “how” does it work?
Compare ideas, activities, findings
Finding evidence, critical thinking, control over variables
Apply knowledge to new situation

68. Theoretical Approach
Using Bloom’s and Krathwohl’s Taxonomies To Classify Questions
Classification
Sample Question
Knowledge
1. How many legs has an insect
Synthesis
2. What hypotheses would you make about this problem?
Application
3. Knowing what you do about heat, how would you get a tightly fitted lid off a jar?
Analysis
4. What things do birds and lizards have in common?
Comprehension
5. Operationally define a magnet

69. Evaluation
6. If you were going to repeat the experiment, how could you do it better?
Receiving
7. Do you watch science shows on television?
Responding
8. Do you talk to your friends about science?
Valuing
9. What is your interest in earth science now compared to when you began the course?
Valuing
10. What do you value about this film?
Organizing
11. Can you argue using scientific facts, evidence, and data?
Characterizing
12. Do you use problem solving techniques for solving problems at school or at work?

70. Convergent vs Divergent Questions
Allowing for a limited number of responses “yes” or “no”
Allowing for a number of responses (e.g. in inquiry)
Usually the
Ratio is:
2 : 1
Allows wrong answers
Provide enough time to answer
WAIT - TIME

71. Low Level vs High Level Techniques
Low – Level Student Inquiry
Teacher
Student
Higher Level Student Inquiry
Teacher
Student
Allows collaboration

72. Comparison of Traditional Classroom with Students’ – Central Classroom
Comparison of a traditional Lecture Classroom with a Student-Centered Classroom
Where We Were
Where We Should Be
Telling the facts
Listening and questioning
Stating the theories
Conceptual understanding
Laboratories as self- fulfilling exercises
Laboratories as open-ended investigations
Teacher as sage on stage
Teacher as facilitator
Fact validation
Inferences
Classical lectures
Inquiry and investigation
Group indoctrination
Individual instruction
Boot camp-like, threatening atmosphere
Positive setting; risk-free atmosphere

73. Critical reading of an article Primary work of a scientist
Secondary newspaper poster media

74. Guidelines
 The materials should be appropriate to students’ abilities and interests.
 Use materials aligned with your goals for teaching.
 Assign a variety of reading sources:
- Text books
- Magazines
- Articles (historical and societal significance)
- Newspapers (scientific articles)

75. Research Findings: Reading Scientific articles
- Enhance critical thinking
- Enhance ability to solve a problem
- Develop creativity
- Develop metacognition
control
awareness
- Students who were involved in inquiry-type laboratories developed the ability to ask more and better questions resulting from reading a scientific article.

76. Assessment of Student Learning
- Measuring the quality of the experiences provided for the students
- Assessment should have purpose in mind
- Focused on data and content which is most important to the student
- Assessment task should be authentic
- Assessment should be fair
- All the students experiences should be assessed
- Students should understand (and be involved in) the assessment
- Students should be aware of the criteria for assessment (weighting)
- Assessment should be part of the development of P.C.K. (Pedagogical Content Knowledge)

77. Evaluation involves the total assessment of Students’ learning to include:
- Understanding of NOS
- Subject matter (knowledge & understanding)
- Multiple talent
- Attitudes & interests
- Skills and abilities (e.g. laboratory)
- Motivation

78. Assessment as a tool for
improving instruction –
e.g. Action Research

79. Purpose of assessment:
Learning difficulties
Placing students
Diagnostic
Advise
Prior knowledge
How well the material is taught
Formative
Improve Methods of Instruction
Modification of techniques
Were the goals attained?
Summative
Grading (final)
Decision making

80. Decision making on:  Programs (laboratory, etc.)
 Instructional technique
 A book to be selected

81. Assessment methods used:
 Paper and pencil test (objective testing)
 Oral tests
 Essay-type tests
 Practical tests

82. Assessment of practical skills
Continuous Assessment of Students Inquiry Laboratory
in Chemistry Observations and “Hot reports”
Social Skills Conclusions Inquiry Observing Conducting Experiment
10% % % % % %
Communication
Hypothesizing
Cooperation
Criticism and
Conclusions
Questioning
Instructions
Interest and
Presenting
Pre-inquiry
Experiment
in groups
Summary
Following
curiosity
Planning
dexterity
Handle
results
Inquiry
skills
stage 1 2 3 4 5 6

83. Different Tests Type Validity Reliability Usability Oral Very low no
High if defined clearly
Low
Easy to administer
Difficult to assess
Essay
High
Very high
-Difficult to prepare
-Easy to answer
-Easy to grade
Completion test
High
Very high
A good test:
-Difficult to prepare
-Easy to answer
-Good for diagnostics
- Guessing factor
Multiple choice (American)

84. Other assessment techniques: not tests
Alternative assessment techniques:
- Concept mapping: Organize ideas to find relations between concepts
- Reading a journal (Method discussed in previous lesson)
Portfolio: Port – to carry or move
Folio – paper
The portfolio includes all the student’s documents, tests, concept- maps, and lab assignments.

85. It is:  Very comprehensive  Highly individualized
 Includes all the student’s achievements
 Continuous
 Dynamic (regarding teacher-student interactions)
 Helps the student to identify weaknesses
 Increases the student’s responsibility and awareness
 Students can be involved in building the content and criteria
 Can include personal reflection

86. Problems with the portfolio:
A lot of work for the teacher
The bigger the class the more the work

87. Characteristics of a good assessment method
valid
differentiate
reliable
motivating
objective
fair
usable

88. Learning Environment as an
Assessment Tool

89. Central Question in the Affective Domain
 Do students like what they do?
 Are their feelings affecting their learning?
 How do we develop curiosity?
Receiving
Responding
valuing

90. Curriculum
Learning
Environment
Students
Learning
Aptitude

91. Learning Environment is constructed from the following three interceptions
 Teacher - student
 Student - student
 Student – learning materials

92. Research on Classroom Learning Environment
What does research say about classroom learning environment?
It influences:
 Achievement
 Attitude and interest
 Students’ behavior.

93. Measures of classroom learning environment
Provide “eyes behind the classroom”

94. Are sensitive to:
 Different instructional techniques:
 Inquiry VS non-inquiry approach
 Student-centered VS teacher-centered classroom
 Big and small classes

95. Assesses the classroom learning environment using
LEI
Assesses the classroom learning environment using
Student’s Perception
Scales
 Cohesiveness
 Diversity
 Formality
 Speed
 Goal-direction
 Satisfaction
 Organization
 Competitiveness

96. Learning environment in science
Instruments
Science classroom
LEI
Learning environment in science
Science laboratory
SLEI
Outdoors
SOLEI

97. The Use of L.E. Measures by the Science Teacher
My Class Inventory – includes:
 Satisfaction
 Friction
 Competitiveness
 Difficulty
 Cohesiveness

98. Features of my Class Instrument
 Easy to administer and respond (yes/no)
 Actual VS preferred L.E
 The Δ measures students’ satisfaction with current L.E

99. Identification of problem Collecting evidence II
Stages in Action-Research
Identification of problem 1
Second evaluation 6
Planning 2
Collecting evidence I 3
Collecting evidence II 5
Making changes 4

100. Learning environment
Student ability
Teacher
Achievement

101. Learning environment
Student ability
Teacher
Achievement