1. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 1 Hunter-Gatherer societies and traditional agriculture Maria Lackner0025209 Tamara Neubauer0201045 Mirjam Weber0052101

2. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 2 Structure of the presentation 1)How to measure energy in human-environment interactions – (general considerations) 2)Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer and early agricultural societies 3)Energy flows of traditional agriculture in Pura (India)

3. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 3 How to measure energy in human- environment interactions (general considerations)

4. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 4 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions general questions: What problems do we encounter when assessing energy in human-environment interactions? How do we estimate human energy? How do we assess the energetics of human labor? How do we measure energy efficiency?

5. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 5 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Problem No. 1 Focus on „commercial“ energy in statistics Example India: energy use/capita = U.N. coal equivalent of 150 to 190 kg but: total energy use from all sources = 490 kg

6. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 6 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Problem No. 2 Estimation of Human Energy Method energy per worker (kcal/hour) gross input (expenditure) Pimentel et al.580 Makhjani and Poole870 Passmore and Durnin250

7. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 7 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Problem No. 2 Estimation of Human Energy Pimentel et al.: energy utilized in farm labor = total food energy input of a fulltime farm worker (40 hours a week) Makhijani & Poole: energy in the food intake of all persons in a farming village = gross energy input for human labor Passmore & Durnin: metabolic energy used in different work activities (oxygen consumed, carbondioxide exhaled) 580 kcal/hour 870 kcal/ hour 250 kcal/ hour

8. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 8 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Problem No. 3 Estimation of Animal Energy Method energy input per bullock kcal/hour/bullock 1a)12.1 x 10³ kcal/hour of work 1b)10.9 x 10³ kcal/hour of work 2)5.3 x 10³ kcal/hour of work 3)2.3 x 10³ kcal/hour of work

9. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 9 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Problem No. 3 Estimation of Animal Energy 1a) net energy input (feed energy – energy in dung) – energy in milk and other products 1b) consideration of the herd‘s milk production 12.1 x 10³ kcal/h 10.9 x 10³ kcal/h

10. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 10 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Problem No. 3 Estimation of Animal Energy 2) [energy/year consumed by the bullock (feed) – energy in dung] / hours worked = gross energy expenditure per working hour 3) weekly energy expenditure of a bullock is ca. 43% of ist total food energy intake for the week 5.3 x 10³ kcal/h 2.3 x 10³ kcal/h

11. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 11 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Problem No. 4 Energy efficiency – which parameters? e.g. maximization of economic profit vs. minimization of risk e.g. maximization of crop yield vs. minimization of ecosystem degradation

12. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 12 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Problem No. 5 power generation total energy requirements = sum of 2 flows of energy 1.flow used directly to generate power 2.flow calculated as the energy spent in the construction and maintenance of the structure delivering power

13. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 13 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Problem No.6 power level is often not considered work = carrying 400 kg of sand upstairs 5 m of height 5 m 400 kg

14. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 14 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Problem No.6 power level is often not considered work = carrying 400 kg of sand upstairs 5 m of height 3 possibilities: a)5 trips carrying 80 kg b)20 trips carrying 20 kg c)100 trips carrying 4 kg

15. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 15 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Problem No.7 difficulty in quantifying a defined work done Power systemLabor requirement (h) Level of power (W) Power generation cost (EI/AP) h Acquirement index Manpower400751001.00 Oxen pair65895250.51 6-HP tractor25447680.25 50-HP tractor43730080.20

16. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 16 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Problem No.7 difficulty in quantifying a defined work done Applied power (MJ)Gross energy requirements (MJ) Manpower10710700 Oxen pair2095200 6-HP tractor4033100 50-HP tractor5374100

17. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 17 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions factors related to the level of energy consumption per capita for rural/poor societies based on manpower: 1.body size 2.quality of the diet 3.exosomatic energy flow (energy flows converted to useful work outside the human body)

18. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 18 How to measure energy in human-environment interactions Literature: Roger Revelle – Energy Use in Rural India Giampietro & Pimentel – Energy efficiency: assessing the interaction between humans and their environment Giampietro & Pimentel – Assessment of the energetics of human labor

19. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 19 Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer and early agricultural societies Energy flows in gerneral The Kung! Bushmen – hunter and gatherers The Tsembaga – early agriculture society The energetic benefits of domestication

20. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 20 Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer societies (Pimentel 1996) Wherefore energy? Obtaining food + collecting firewood Basal metabolism: 1080 kcal + … Examples for Energy requirements for various activities In kcal/h Sitting, standing relaxed20 Walking130-240 Climbing400-900 Running very quickly1240 Walking loaded (10kg)400

21. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 21 Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer societies (Pimentel 1996) Wherefrom energy? Wild plants and animals (wood for fire ?) Total annual production of plant biomass in a temperate region averages about 2400kg per ha. Under favourable conditions this quantity might support an animal and microbe biomass of about 200kg per ha.

22. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 22 Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer societies (Pimentel 1996) How much land do hunter-gatherers need? Pimentel: 40 hectare (ideal ecosystem) Modern-day hunter-gatherers need much more (150-250ha) In the northwestern Canadian region about 14.000 ha per person In subarctic lands up to 50.000 ha per person !Kung Bushmen about 1000ha. Comparison: Austria is 84’000 km2 = 8.400.000 ha 200.000 40.000 8.400

23. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 23 Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer societies - The !Kung Bushmen Population density: 1 person per 1040 ha Most of the daily calorie intake of the !Kung Bushmen (56%) are mongongo nuts. A critical decision for the bushmen is where to locate their camps. Food and water must be near enough. They occupy a camp for a period of weeks and eat their way out of it. Energy Output/Input ratio falls with distance (19km: 2 day trip) Lee, 1969

24. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 24 Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer societies - The !Kung Bushmen hoursKcal Travel to location of nuts1,2270 Collecting nuts3675 Return trip (+12,5kg nuts)1,2462 Sleep10,5473 Other activities8800 INPUT242.680 OUTPUT (shelled nuts 1,75kg)10.500 Output/Input ratio4:1 Output/Input analysis of !Kung bushmen gathering mongongo nuts at a distance of 4,8 km from their camp

25. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 25 Population density: 1 person per 4 hectare Early agricultural society in New Guinea Tropical mountainous ecosystem, rainy Swidden-type agricultural system (Brandrodungsfeldbau) Food of plant origin (taro, sweet potatoe, fruit, leaves, bananas, yams) 99% Some pigs Energy flows in early agricultural societies – The Tsembaga Rappaport, 1968 Early agriculture: no fossil fuels, no animal power

26. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 26 Energy flows in early agricultural societies – The Tsembaga Hours/haKcal/ha Clearing underbush17570.000 Fencing garden8442.000 Weeding and burning7823.400 Planting and all weeding742222.600 Harvesting27783.100 Axe, machete-16860 INPUTS1.860739.160 OUTPUT (Crop yield)11.384.462 OUTPUT/INPUT RATIO15:1 Output/Input analysis of New Guinea swidden agriculture for 1 ha of mixed crops Energetical input of wood and vegetation for fire ?

27. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 27 Livestock in early agricultural societies – The Tsembaga Output/Input ratio of pigs 1:2 Why? Stock (Pimentel) Distribution of surplus wealth (Rappaport) Kaiko ritual (pigs for the ancestors < carrying capacity) Energetic benefits of domestication „Non convertable“ grasses → usable energy Animal power → energy source (beast of burden) Need of protein →Herding more energy efficient as hunting

28. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 28 Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer societies Food, Energy and Society, David and Maria Pimentel, 1996. Chapter 6: Hunter – Gatherers and early agriculture. Chapter 7: Early livestock systems and animal power.

29. Agriculture An example from India Pura 1977 www.export.gov.il www.faorap-apcar.org

30. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 30 Pura 1977 South India Karnataka State - 56 households - 357 people - 671 meters above sealevel - Annual rainfall of 127 centimeters

31. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 31 Overview Energy consumption patterns of Pura Ranking of energy sources Energy- Activity Matrix Ranking of activities requiring energy End Uses of Human Energy Health Hazards for the people of Pura

32. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 32 Energy Consumption Patterns Energy used for: - agricultural operations -domestic activities -lighting -Industry www.news.bbc.co.uk www.images.wir.org Agriculture An Example from India

33. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 33 Ranking of energy sources per year: 1)Fuelwood (89%) 2)Human energy (7%) 3)Kerosene (2%) 4)Bullock energy (1%) 5)Electricity (1%) www.rcfa.cfan.org www.glamro.gov.uk Agriculture An Example from India

34. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 34 Energy- Source Activity Matrix Agriculture An Example from India

35. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 35 Ranking of activities requiring energy: 1)Domestic activities (91%) 2)Industry (4%) 3)Agriculture (3%) 4)Lighting (2%) Agriculture An Example from India

36. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 36 Domestic Activities like cooking Human energy 19% Fuelwood 80% www.welshartsarchive.org.uk Agriculture An Example from India

37. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 37 Domestic activities like grazing livestock Human energy 46% www.jupiterimages.com Agriculture An Example from India

38. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 38 WomenChildrenMen Gathering fuelwood 42%25%33% Fetching water 80%14%6% Grazing livestock 15%33%52% www.rediff.com

39. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 39 End Uses of Human Energy Agriculture An Example from India

40. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 40 The use of low level energy sources in Pura causes: -high human time input -high labor effort -health hazards www.fao.org Agriculture An Example from India

41. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 41 Why health hazards? -Dependence on biomass cooking fuels = fuelwood, dung cakes, crop wastes,... = high toxic emissions like carbon monoxide, suspended particulates, hydrocarbon! Agriculture An Example from India

42. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 42 Health Effects Production: Skin infections, enteric infections,... Collection: Trauma, allergic reactions, bites from reptiles,... Combustion: respiratory irritation, burns, chronic bronchitis,... Agriculture An Example from India

43. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 43 A Greater Health Impact for women and girls (1) -daily subsistance chores lead to a higher calorie expenditure/day (not compensated by food intake) -Domestic tasks more often done by women or girls are perennial and not seasonal -Depletion by repeated births Agriculture An Example from India

44. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 44 A Greater Health Impact for women and girls (2) -especially traditional rice cultivation methods cause complications for pregnant women -Increase of stillbirths, premature births and neonatal mortality while rice during rice planting months -Lack of adequate water = increase of genito- urinary and reproductive tract infections which stay untreated für years Agriculture An Example from India

45. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 45 Facit: low levels of energy services are a serious problem! - People of Pura depend on human energy and primitive technologies for their daily survival Agriculture An Example from India

46. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 46 Literature: Srilatha Batliwala - Energy as an obstacle to improved living standards Roger Revelle - Energy Use in Rural India Agriculture An Example from India

47. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 47 Discussion Hunter-Gatherers & traditional agriculture Differences (1): population density energy efficiency (input/output) land use effort for energy production division of labor

48. Energy in human-environment interactions WS 2007 48 Discussion Hunter-Gatherers & traditional agriculture Differences (2): unregulated / regulated solar system colonization domestication stock scarcity of energy