2. Development of periodical press and other media in totality. L 6 Ing. Jiří Šnajdar 2014

3. 3 Censorship is institutionally and politically supported intervention of state power in authorial intention or in information flow, forced intervention in authors´ and publishers´ rights. Is divided into preliminary (prevention), consequential (repressive) and running (continuous). Also it is possible to follow the phase of communication process, where the censorship is performed. It can be aimed at : communicator, often author, publication and recipient. Often used self- censorship is named as result of indirect pressure on author.

4. 4 Roots of censorship practice reach to Rome and beginning of Christianity in Europe. Censorship is also the base of inquisition, what proclaims the bull of pope Inocence VIII. dedicated to sorceresses´ persecution and especially its operating manual so called: The Hammer of Witches. In the year 1559 the pope Pavel IV. published for the first time list of forbidden texts in Index Librorum prohibitorum, which restricted communication until its last revision in the year 1948 canceled only in the year 1967.

5. 5 Protestantism did not bring fundamental change in realisation of censorhips´ activities – after consolidation of their positions moved the Protestant authorities in the similar ways as Catholic. In Europe increased the censorship proceedings after invention of typography and the freedom in expressing became a political theme. In the Czech crown region copied the censorship development in the European trends. Media censorship is actually enforced only with development of Czech newspapers from the end of 18 th century.

6. 6 In the year 1848 was the censorship cancelled by law, but after repression of revolution ideas returned the state authority to well-tried methods.

7. 7 The absolutist law of May 1851 was in December 1862 replaced with a liberal law, which was modified in the years 1868 and 1894 and after the year 1918 assumed it newly developed Czechoslovak republic and with some peripetia, caused by national pressures, was this modification used until 1939. In the period between wars became the journalist profession professional, in the year 1926 is established Czech Journalists Syndicate in the head is Jiří Pichl, from the year 1927 publishes professional bulletins and magazines.

8. 8 Management and media control from beginning of occupation was closely connected with practice of second republic. The censorship performed officials of press supervisory service (press government department, later ministry of school and public cultivation) installed directly in editors and connected to district or police offices. Media came under a group for press of cultural- political department of Office of the Reich Protector. Important element was in media Czech activism as a ideological and political course of tendency to politics of nazi German. It appeared already in the period of so called second republic.

9. 9 Its keystone was belief, that only through the most active cooperation with the empire, as the dominate contiguous great power, and leaning to its Nazi ideology it is possible to reach some political targets. After the war was renewed validity of laws and rules from the time before 1938, but political parties did not enforce previous censorship practice. So from the May 1945 de facto did not exist any censorship. After the state revolution in February 1948 caught the communists together with authority also regulation and control of media.

10. 10 The censorship appears in all societies – also in the most developed democracies. In non-democratic societies is pervasive and totalitarian interpretation stresses its protective function. At present is again discussed the possibility to influence content and formal quality of internet mainly with consideration to childern´ and youths´ education and accessibility of pornography.

11. 11 After Munich agreement in March 1939 was established Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Media are for 6 years under occupation administration, some of them are cancelled. Listening of all foreign radio stations is forbidden. Important is especially BBC broadcasting (Jan Masaryk) and Voice of America (Hofmeister, Voskovec, Werich, Ježek). After the war was weaken the democratic character of the country already as the result of Kosice government program. According to notice of Ministry of information cannot be the publisher of periodicals a private person.

12. 12 The censorship authority developed only five years after revolution – under the name Main Administration of press supervision. In the second half of sixtieth years of the 20 th century was also reorganisation of control system. New communists approach to media management culminated in summer 1968 with acceptance of a law, which marked the censorship as inadmissible. But after occupation of the Czechoslovakia in August 1968 was established again and was found Office for Press and Information.

13. 13 Number of issued journals decreases to less than one fifth of the number before war and after the revolution in 1948 issue in the Czechoslovakia only 13 journals. Altogether after the year 1948 is stopped 570 titles, occurs first wave of emigration – Tigrid and Peroutka. During next decades comes step by step to some liberalisation - not only in the Czechoslovakia, but in whole Europe (criticism of Stalin) and new titles start to issue, for example Evening Prague but also Creation, Culture, Economic newspaper, professional magazines, Flowers, Porcupine, Pioneer, Campfire, The Literary Newspaper and others. Culmination in our conditions was Prague Spring.

14. 14 The first signal in mass media, that there are structural changes in the society, brought medial discussions to still taboo themes – for example necessity of freedom in utterance for democratic organisation of society, objective description of congress Association of writers in June 1967 and students´ demonstrations in Prague at Strahov. In June 1968 was cancelled censorship and was published text Two thousand words. Progressive break-up of ideological tongs of socialism including control of media was interrupted by intervention of military powers of Warsaw Pact and its consequences.

15. 15 Again are cancelled popular titles (Týdeník aktualit, Listy, Reportér, Dialog, Impuls, Plamen, My 69) and is next wave of emigration of journalists. After relatively short period of release started again disappear hundreds of names of authors, whose publications were cast out form libraries and school books and some of elite members stopped to exist openly - normalisation regime not only deleted their work from public knowledge, but started to liquidate them and expel to the side of society by sacking from the work, restrictions of activities and lasting bullying.

16. 16 In the time of normalisation especially dissent formulated some appeals to official regime, for example Charta 77 and opened letter A few sentences, exhorting for changes and democracy. In mind of normalisation worked also professional organisation Czech Union of Journalists and all official press and broadcasting media. Probably the only one positive of this time period was really very high quality of programmes for children, to its apolitical creating fallen the best performers.

17. 17 Till today is also discussed quality and undisputed spectatorial attraction of normalisation TV series. On one side were influenced by socialist ideology and false morality, on the contrary verged on with kitsch (The youngest of the family Hamry, District in the north Thirty Cases of Major Zeman etc.).

18. 18 Musty communist establishment in the Czechoslovakia resisted in the 80 th even more or less opened the release coming from East – perestrojka and Gorbacov. But after some peripetia was the situation indefensible, passed off demonstrations in August 1988 and in January 1898 and lastly the events in November.

19. 19 United Kingdom The department's functions were threefold: news and press censorship; home publicity; and overseas publicity in Allied and neutral countries. Planning for such an organisation, largely conducted in secret, had started in October 1935 under the auspices of the Committee for Imperial Defence. While the government was publicly admitting the inevitability of war, propaganda was still tainted by the experience of the First World War, when several different bodies had been responsible for propaganda and information.

20. 20 United Kingdom By early 1939 there was concern that the next war would be a 'war of nerves' involving the civilian population, and that the government would need to go further than ever before with every means of publicity 'utilised and co-ordinated', as it fought against a well- funded and established Nazi machine. The Ministry was formed on 4 September 1939, the day after Britain's declaration of war.

21. 21 United Kingdom Threatened by censorship, the press reacted negatively to the MOI, describing it as shambolic and disorganised, and as a result it underwent many structural changes throughout the war, with four Ministers heading the MOI in quick succession: Lord Hugh Macmillan, Sir John Reith and Duff Cooper, before the Ministry settled down under Brendan Bracken in July 1941. Supported by Prime Minister Winston Churchill and the press, Bracken remained in office until victory was obvious.

22. 22 United Kingdom The Ministry was responsible for information policy and the output of propaganda material in Allied and neutral countries, with overseas publicity organised geographically. American and Empire Divisions continued throughout the war, other areas being covered by a succession of different divisions. The MOI was not, in general, responsible for propaganda in enemy and enemy-occupied countries, but it did liaise directly with the Foreign Office.

23. 23 Germany Censorship in Germany was implemented by the Ministry of propaganda, Minister of Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels. All media—literature, music, newspapers, and public events—were censored. Attempts were also made to postal censorship, censor private communications, such as mail and even private conversation, with mixed results.

24. 24 Germany The aim of censorship under the Nazi regime was simple: to reinforce Nazi power and to suppress opposing viewpoints and information. Punishments ranged from banning of presentation and publishing of works to deportation, imprisonment, or even execution or a Internment in Concentration camp.

25. 25 Germany "The chief function of propaganda is to convince the masses, whose slowness of understanding needs to be given time so they may absorb information; and only constant repetition will finally succeed in imprinting an idea on their mind.“

26. 26 West Germany 1945—1990 Federal Republic of Germany During the post World War II period, the West Germany, West German media was subject to censorship by the Allies,Allied military occupational forces. Criticism of the occupational forces and of the emerging government were not tolerated. Publications which were expected to have a negative effect on the general public were not printed. A list of over 30,000 titles, including works by such authors as Carl von Clausewitz, was drawn up. All the millions of copies of these books were to be confiscated and destroyed. The representative of the Military Directorate admitted that the order in principle was no different from the previous government.

27. 27 West Germany 1945—1990 Federal Republic of Germany The representative of the Military Directorate admitted that the order in principle was no different from the previous government. When the official government, the Federal Republic of Germany, ''Bundesrepublik Deutschland'' took over, these limits were relaxed. The new German constitution guaranteed freedom of press, speech, and opinion.

28. 28 Federal Republic of Germany An Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien, index of harmful materials, listed those subjects and materials which are restricted in publishing and exhibition. These restrictions focused largely on material which could be harmful to minor (law) minors, and included protections of personal dignity. Materials written or printed by organizations ruled to be anti- constitutional, such as Nazism organizations or the Red Army Faction (Baader-Meinhof Gang), were placed on the index.

29. 29 East Germany (1945—1990) Censorship in East Germany Censorship in the former German Democratic Republic, ''Deutsche Demokratische Republik'' was widely implemented. Licenses were required to publish any material, and permission was required to exhibit or perform any visual art. In addition, journalists without government approval were not hired. Censorship was implemented both before and after publication of a work.

30. 30 East Germany (1945—1990) Censorship in East Germany The primary goal of East German censorship was to protect the interests of communism and its implementation. Works critical of the East German or Soviet Union governments were forbidden, as were any works which seemed sympathetic to fascism.

31. 31 USA Sedition Act of 1918 The Sedition Act of 1918, enacted May 16, 1918 was an Act of the United States Congress that extended the Espionage Act of 1917 to cover a broader range of offenses, notably speech and the expression of opinion that cast the government or the war effort in a negative light or interfered with the sale of government bonds.

32. 32 USA It forbade the use of "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" about the United States government, its flag, or its armed forces or that caused others to view the American government or its institutions with contempt. Those convicted under the act generally received sentences of imprisonment for 5 to 20 years. The act also allowed the Postmaster General to refuse to deliver mail that met those same standards for punishable speech or opinion. It applied only to times "when the United States is in war."

33. 33 USA Most U.S. newspapers "showed no antipathy toward the act" and " far from opposing the measure, the leading papers seemed actually to lead the movement in behalf of its speedy enactment.„ Congress repealed the Sedition Act on December 13, 1920. In general, censorship in the United States, which involves the suppression of speech or other public communication, raises issues of freedom of speech, which is constitutionally protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.

34. 34 USA This freedom, though fundamental, has also been accompanied since its enshrinement with contest and controversy. For instance, restraints increased during periods of widespread anti-communist sentiment, as exemplified by the hearings of the House Committee on Un-American Activities. It is also legal to express certain forms of hate speech so long as one does not engage in the acts being discussed, or urge others to commit illegal acts.

35. 35 USA However, more severe forms have led to people or groups such as the Ku Klux Klan being denied certain marching permits or the Westboro Baptist Church being sued, though the initially adverse ruling against the latter was later overturned on appeal in the US Supreme Court. Some recent laws have restricted forms of hate speech, however. Certain forms of speech, such as obscenity and defamation, are restricted in major media outlets by the government or by the industry on its own.

36. 36 Russia After the fall of the monarchy and the collapse of the empire, the institution of censorship was preserved, though transformed. In the words of Pavel Reifman: "Soviet censorship did not come out of nowhere. It was the successor of the pre-revolutionary Russian censorship, the censorship of a centuries-old autocratic Russia". On March 9, 1917, the Provisional Government eliminated the main center of tsarist censorship—the Main Committee on Matters of the Press—and introduced the post of Commissar on Matters of the Press.

37. 37 Russia On May 16 the Bulletin of the Provisional Government published the legislative decree stating: "The press and the trade of printed works are free. It is not allowed to apply administrative penalties to the press." In reality, such freedom was never fully achieved. Pyotr Wrangel wrote that with the freedom given to left-wing propaganda, right-wing newspapers were closed down and confiscated.

38. 38 Russia Subsequently, in response to the crisis of the July Days, the government gave the minister of war the right to close publications that called for military rebellion and disobedience on the front, which led to the repression of Bolshevik newspapers.

39. 39 Russia Censorship in the Soviet Union was pervasive and strictly enforced. Censorship was performed in two main directions: State secrets were handled by Main Administration for Safeguarding State Secrets in the Press (also known as Glavlit) was in charge of censoring all publications and broadcasting for state secrets Censorship, in accordance with the official ideology and politics of the Communist Party was performed by several organizations:

40. 40 Russia Works of print such as the press, advertisements, product labels, and books were censored by Glavlit, an agency established on June 6, 1922, to safeguard top secret information from foreign entities. From 1932 until 1952, the promulgation of socialist realism was the target of Glavlit in works of print, while Anti-Westernization and nationalism were common tropes for that goal.

41. 41 Russia To limit peasant revolts over the „Holodomor“, themes involving shortages of food were expunged. In the 1932 book “Russia Washed in Blood,” a Bolshevik’s harrowing account of Moscow’s devastation from the October revolution contained the description, “frozen rotten potatoes, dogs eaten by people, children dying out, hunger,” but was promptly deleted.