1. Disk Topics: Black Hole Disks, Planet Formation 12 May 2003 Astronomy G9001 - Spring 2003 Prof. Mordecai-Mark Mac Low

2. Black Hole Accretion Disks In protostellar accretion disks, radiation is always efficient, and the assumption Ωr >> c s is good. –thin disk approximation Now turn to compact objects –deeper potential wells produce higher temperatures –far more energy must be lost to radiation –Some observed supermassive BHs have little radiation (Sag A * is the classic example) –How does accretion proceed?

3. Thin Disk Dissipation Thin disk approximation ν = αc s 2 /Ω (or π rφ = αP) prescription for viscosity classic radiative disk (Shakura & Sunyaev 1973, Novikov & Thorne 1973) –viscous heating balances radiative cooling –steady mass inflow gives torque ( Sellwood ) –dissipation per unit area is then –3 x binding energy, because of viscous dissipation

4. Thin Disk Radiation if dissipated heat all radiated away, then this gives temperature distribution T ~ R 3/4 Integrating over the disk gives spectrum around a BH, energy release is ~ Observed luminosities from, e.g. Sag A * appear to be as low as How is BH accreting so much mass without radiating?

5. ADAF/CDAF Narayan & Yi (1992) and others proposed that the energy is advected into the BH before it can be radiated: advection dominated accretion flow Numerical models made clear that the extra energy produces a convectively unstable entropy gradient in the radial direction, as well as unbinding some of the gas entirely convection dominated accretion flow proposed as elaboration of ADAF –outward convective transport balances inward viscous transport, leaving disk marginally stable –analogous to convective zone in stars

6. Problems with ADAF/CDAF Balbus (2000) points out that convection and MRI cannot be treated as independent forces –instead a single instability criterion must be found –this reduces to the MRI, so no balance exists Balbus & Hawley (2002) analyze non-radiative MHD flows. –convectively unstable modes overwhelmed by MRI –balanced transport implies that convection recovers energy produced by viscous dissipation, resulting in a dissipation-free flow: but this violates 2nd Law of Thermodynamics!

7. Non-Radiative Accretion Flow Hawley & Balbus (2002) simulate non-radiative MHD flow numerically, finding outflow and unsteady, slow, accretion

8. And now for something completely different...

9. Planet Formation in Disks Solar planets formed from protoplanetary disk with at least 0.01 M  of gas (Minimum Mass Solar Nebula) Observed disks have comparable masses Disk evolution determines initial conditions. Ruden 1999

10. Grain Dynamics Gas moves on slightly sub-Keplerian orbits due to radial pressure gradient Grains move on Keplerian orbits –grains with a < 1 cm feel drag F D = – (4/3) πa 2 ρc s (Δv) –coupling time t c = m Δv / F D, so small Ωt c = aρ d / Σ means particles drop towards star, large remain. Vertical settling also depends on Ωt c –vertical gravity g z = (z/r)GM * / R 2 = Ω 2 z –settling time t s = z / v z = Ω -1 (Ωt c ) -1 = Σ / (aρ d Ω) –small grains with Ωt c << 1 take many orbits to settle –coagulation vital to accumulate mass in midplane

11. Planetesimals Big enough to ignore gas drag over disk lifetime How do they accumulate from dust grains? –gravitational instability requires very cold disk with Δv ~ 10 cm s -1 (Goldreich & Ward) –shear with disk enough to disrupt most likely –Collisional coagulation main alternative (Cuzzi et al 93) Planetesimals collide to form planets –gravitational focussing gives cross-section (Safronov):

12. Planet Growth Orderly growth by planetesimal accretion has long time scale: Velocity dispersion Δv must remain low to enhance gravitational focussing. Dynamical friction transfers energy from large objects to small ones –large objects have lowest velocity dispersion and so largest effective cross sections. –collisions between them lead to runaway growth Ruden 99

13. Final Stages of Solid Accretion Runaway growth continues until material has been cleared out of orbits within a few Hill radii –Hill radius determined by balance between gravity of planet and tidal force of central star Protoplanet sizes reach 5–10% of final masses Final accumulation driven by orbital dynamics of protoplanets –major collisions of planet-sized objects an essential part of final evolution –random events determine details of final configuration of solid planets

14. Gas Accretion Above critical mass of 10–15 M  planetary atmospheres no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium –heating comes from p’mal impacts –increasing heating required to balance radiative cooling of denser gas atmospheres (Mizuno 1980) –collapse of atmosphere occurs until heating from gravitational contraction balances cooling –rapid accretion can occur Final masses determined either by: –destruction of disk by photoevaporation or tides –gap clearing in gaseous disk

15. Gap Formation & Migration Giant planets exert tidal torques on surrounding gas, repelling it and forming a gap in disk. Disk also exerts a torque on the planet, causing radial migration.

16. Gap Formation Tidal torque on disk with surface density Σ from planet at r p Viscous torque Gap opened if T t > T v which means In solar system this is about 75 or roughly Saturn’s mass.

17. Observations Disk Observations –spectral energy distributions density distribution gaps and inner edges –dust disks (β Pic, Vega) Poynting-Robertson clears in much less than t * presence of dust disk indicates colliding planetesimals –Proplyds [Protoplanetary disks], seen in silhouette Indirect Dynamical Observations –radial velocity searches need accurate spectroscopy: calibrator (iodine) in optical path –radial distance changes: pulsar timing –astrometry: next generation likely productive (SIM)

18. Observations Microlensing of planet –superposes spike on stellar amplification curve –can also shift apparent position of star Direct detections –transits photometry - eclipse of star (or of planet!) transmission spectroscopy of atmosphere –direct imaging adaptive optics interferometry coronagraphs (+ AO = Oppenheimer @ AMNH)

19. Search techniques 1.Kepler: space-based transit search 2.COROT: same 3.Doppler: 3m/s ground-based 4.SIM = Space Interferometry Mission 5.FAME = next ESA astrometry mission 6.ground based transit search 7.Lyot = AO + coronagraph ( BRO ) habitable zone Lyot