1. DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis

2. How do our genes work? “How do our genes determine our physical characteristics? These questions and others led scientists to develop experiments to find answers Frederick Griffith, 1928, tried to determine how bacteria make people sick. Specifically, he studied bacteria that produce pneumonia, a serious lung disease

3. Griffith and Transformation Video

4. Griffith Experiment Griffith called this process transformation because one strain of bacteria (the harmless strain) had changed permanently into another (the disease- causing strain). Griffith hypothesized that a factor must contain information that could change harmless bacteria into disease-causing ones.

5. Avery and DNA In 1944 Canadian biologist Oswald Avery repeated Griffith’s experiment Made an extract from the heat-killed bacteria Treated the extract with an enzyme that destroyed proteins, lipids, carbs, and RNA, leaving only DNA: transformation still occurred They destroyed the DNA: transformation ceased Concluded that DNA stored the genetic information that is transmitted

6. Hershey-Chase Experiment Alfred Hershey and Marsha Chase studied viruses – nonliving particles smaller than cells Viruses contain DNA surrounded by protein coat They experiment on bacteriophages – viruses that infect bacteria If they could determine which part of the virus infected the bacteria, they could conclude whether genes were made of protein or DNA

7. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall The Hershey-Chase Experiment If 35 S was found in the bacteria, it would mean that the viruses’ protein had been injected into the bacteria. Bacteriophage with sulfur-35 in protein coat Phage infects bacterium No radioactivity inside bacterium

8. The Hershey-Chase Experiment If 32 P was found in the bacteria, then it was the DNA that had been injected. Nearly all of the radioactivity in the cell was from phosphorous. Hershey-Chase concluded that DNA was the source of genetic information, not proteins Bacteriophage with phosphorus-32 in DNA Phage infects bacterium Radioactivity inside bacterium

9. Structure of DNA DNA is made up of units called nucleotides Each nucleotide is made up of three components: – 5-carbon sugar called deoxyribose – A phosphate group – A nitrogenous base Four kinds of nitrogenous base in DNA: – Adenine and Guanine are purines (2 rings) – Cytosine and Thymine are pyrimidines (1 ring)

10. The Components and Structure of DNA There are four kinds of bases in in DNA: – adenine – guanine – cytosine – thymine

11. DNA structure Backbone of DNA strand is formed by sugar and phosphate groups of each nucleotide The nucleotides can be joined in any order Erwin Chargaff discovered that: – The percentages of guanine [G] and cytosine [C] bases are almost equal in any sample of DNA. – The percentages of adenine [A] and thymine [T] bases are almost equal in any sample of DNA. Therefore, this is called Chargaff’s Rule

12. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall The Components and Structure of DNA X-Ray Evidence – Rosalind Franklin used X-ray diffraction to get information about the structure of DNA. – She aimed an X-ray beam at concentrated DNA samples and recorded the scattering pattern of the X-rays on film.

13. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall The Double Helix Using clues from Franklin’s pattern, James Watson and Francis Crick built a model that explained how DNA carried information and could be copied. Watson and Crick's model of DNA was a double helix, in which two strands were wound around each other. Watson and Crick discovered that hydrogen bonds can form only between certain base pairs—adenine and thymine, and guanine and cytosine. This principle is called base pairing.

14. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA Double Helix

15. Blame it on the DNA Stanford Video

16. DNA and Chromosomes In prokaryotic cells, DNA is located in the cytoplasm. Most prokaryotes have a single DNA molecule containing nearly all of the cell’s genetic information.

17. DNA and Chromosomes Many eukaryotes have 1000 times the amount of DNA as prokaryotes. Eukaryotic DNA is located in the cell nucleus inside chromosomes. The number of chromosomes varies widely from one species to the next.

18. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA and Chromosomes Chromosome Structure – Eukaryotic chromosomes contain DNA and protein, tightly packed together to form chromatin. – Chromatin consists of DNA tightly coiled around proteins called histones. – DNA and histone molecules form nucleosomes. – Nucleosomes pack together, forming a thick fiber.

19. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA and Chromosomes – Eukaryotic Chromosome Structure Chromosome Supercoils Nucleosome DNA double helix Histones Coils

20. DNA Replication Each strand of the DNA double helix has all the information needed to reconstruct the other half by the mechanism of base pairing. In most prokaryotes, DNA replication begins at a single point and continues in two directions In eukaryotic chromosomes, DNA replication occurs at hundreds of places. Replication proceeds in both directions until each chromosome is completely copied. The sites where separation and replication occur are called replication forks.

21. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA Replication Before a cell divides, it duplicates its DNA in a process called replication. Replication ensures that each resulting cell will have a complete set of DNA. During DNA replication, the DNA molecule separates into two strands, then produces two new complementary strands following the rules of base pairing. Each strand of the double helix of DNA serves as a template for the new strand.

22. Nitrogen Bases Replication Fork DNA Polymerase Replication Fork Original strand New Strand Growth Active Art

23. DNA Replication DNA replication is carried out by enzymes (Helicase) that “unzip” a molecule of DNA. Hydrogen bonds between base pairs are broken and the two strands of DNA unwind. The principal enzyme involved in DNA replication is DNA polymerase. DNA polymerase joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule and then “proofreads” each new DNA strand.

24. Genes are coded DNA instructions that control the production of proteins. Genetic messages can be decoded by copying part of the nucleotide sequence from DNA into RNA. RNA contains coded information for making proteins. Genes

25. RNA RNA consists of a long chain of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are three main differences between RNA and DNA: – The sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose. – RNA is generally single-stranded. – RNA contains uracil in place of thymine.

26. Types of RNA There are three main types of RNA: – messenger RNA – ribosomal RNA – transfer RNA

27. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries copies of instructions for assembling amino acids into proteins.

28. Ribosomes are made up of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosome Ribosomal RNA

29. During protein construction, transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers each amino acid to the ribosome. Amino acid Transfer RNA

30. Transcription RNA molecules are produced by copying part of a nucleotide sequence of DNA into a complementary sequence in RNA. This process is called transcription. Transcription requires the enzyme RNA polymerase. During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands.

31. Transcription RNA polymerase then uses one strand of DNA as a template from which nucleotides are assembled into a strand of RNA. RNA polymerase binds only to regions of DNA known as promoters. Promoters are signals in DNA that indicate to the enzyme where to bind to make RNA Video

32. RNA Editing The DNA of eukaryotic genes contains sequences of nucleotides, called introns, that are not involved in coding for proteins. The DNA sequences that code for proteins are called exons. When RNA molecules are formed, introns and exons are copied from DNA.

33. RNA Editing The introns are cut out of RNA molecules. The exons are then spliced together to form mRNA. The genetic code is the “language” of mRNA instructions. The code is written using four “letters” (the bases: A, U, C, and G). Exon Intron DNA Pre-mRNA mRNA Cap Tail

34. The Genetic Code A codon consists of three consecutive nucleotides on mRNA that specify a particular amino acid.

35. The Genetic Code Each codon specifies a particular amino acid. Some amino acids can be specified by more than one codon. There is one codon AUG that can either specify the amino acid methionine or serve as a “start” codon for protein synthesis. There are three “stop” codons that do not code for any amino acid. These “stop” codons signify the end of a polypeptide.

36. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall The Genetic Code

37. Translation Translation is the decoding of an mRNA message into a polypeptide chain (protein). Translation takes place on ribosomes. During translation, the cell uses information from messenger RNA to produce proteins.

38. Translation Nucleus mRNA Messenger RNA is transcribed in the nucleus, and then enters the cytoplasm where it attaches to a ribosome. Video

39. Translation Translation begins when an mRNA molecule attaches to a ribosome. As each codon of the mRNA molecule moves through the ribosome, the proper amino acid is brought into the ribosome by tRNA. In the ribosome, the amino acid is transferred to the growing polypeptide chain.

40. Translation Each tRNA molecule carries only one kind of amino acid. In addition to an amino acid, each tRNA molecule has three unpaired bases. These bases, called the anticodon, are complementary to one mRNA codon.

41. Lysine tRNA Phenylalanine Methionine Ribosome mRNA Start codon The ribosome binds new tRNA molecules and amino acids as it moves along the mRNA.

42. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall Translation Protein Synthesis tRNA Ribosome mRNA Lysine Translation direction

43. Translation The process continues until the ribosome reaches a stop codon. Polypeptide Ribosome tRNA mRNA Video

44. The Roles of RNA and DNA The cell uses the DNA “master plan” to prepare RNA “blueprints.” The DNA stays in the nucleus. The RNA molecules go to the protein building sites in the cytoplasm—the ribosomes. Genes contain instructions for assembling proteins. Many proteins are enzymes, which catalyze and regulate chemical reactions. Proteins are each specifically designed to build or operate a component of a living cell.

45. The sequence of bases in DNA is used as a template for mRNA. The codons of mRNA specify the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Codon mRNA Alanine Arginine Leucine Amino acids within a polypeptide Single strand of DNA

46. Central Dogma DNA  RNA  Protein

48. 12-4 Mutations Mutations – changes in the genetic material

49. Kinds of Mutations Mutations that produce changes in a single gene are known as gene mutations. Mutations that produce changes in whole chromosomes are known as chromosomal mutations. Gene mutations involving a change in one or a few nucleotides are known as point mutations because they occur at a single point in the DNA sequence. Point mutations include substitutions, insertions, and deletions.

50. Substitutions usually affect no more than a single amino acid.

51. Kinds of Mutations The effects of insertions or deletions are more dramatic. The addition or deletion of a nucleotide causes a shift in the grouping of codons. Changes like these are called frameshift mutations. Frameshift mutations may change every amino acid that follows the point of the mutation. Frameshift mutations can alter a protein so much that it is unable to perform its normal functions.

52. In an insertion, an extra base is inserted into a base sequence. Video

53. In a deletion, the loss of a single base is deleted and the reading frame is shifted.

54. ChromosomalMutations Chromosomal mutations involve changes in the number or structure of chromosomes. Chromosomal mutations include deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations.

55. Deletions involve the loss of all or part of a chromosome.

56. Duplications produce extra copies of parts of a chromosome. Video

57. Inversions reverse the direction of parts of chromosomes.

58. Translocations occurs when part of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another. Video

59. Significance of Mutations Many mutations have little or no effect on gene expression. Some mutations are the cause of genetic disorders. Beneficial mutations may produce proteins with new or altered activities that can be useful. Polyploidy is the condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes. Example: Durum wheat is 3N (3 times N, where N equals number of chromosomes; we are 2N) Mutations Video Abby & Brittany Hensel Video

60. Gene Regulation

61. Gene Regulation: An Example E. coli provides an example of how gene expression can be regulated. An operon is a group of genes that operate together. In E. coli, these genes must be turned on so the bacterium can use lactose as food. Therefore, they are called the lac operon.

62. Operons The lac genes are turned off by repressors and turned on by the presence of lactose.

63. On one side of the operon's three genes are two regulatory regions. – In the promoter (P) region, RNA polymerase binds and then begins transcription.

64. The other region is the operator (O).

65. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall When the lac repressor binds to the O region, transcription is not possible.

66. When lactose is added, sugar binds to the repressor proteins.

67. The repressor protein changes shape and falls off the operator and transcription is made possible.

68. Gene Regulation: An Example Many genes are regulated by repressor proteins. Some genes use proteins that speed transcription. Sometimes regulation occurs at the level of protein synthesis.

69. Eukaryotic Gene Regulation Operons are generally not found in eukaryotes. Most eukaryotic genes are controlled individually and have regulatory sequences that are much more complex than those of the lac operon.

70. Eukaryotic Gene Regulation Many eukaryotic genes have a sequence called the TATA box. Promoter sequences Upstream enhancer TATA box Introns Exons Direction of transcription

71. Eukaryotic Gene Regulation The TATA box seems to help position RNA polymerase. Promoter sequences Upstream enhancer TATA box Introns Exons Direction of transcription

72. Eukaryotic Gene Regulation Eukaryotic promoters are usually found just before the TATA box, and consist of short DNA sequences. Promoter sequences Upstream enhancer TATA box Introns Exons Direction of transcription

73. Eukaryotic Gene Regulation Genes are regulated in a variety of ways by enhancer sequences. Many proteins can bind to different enhancer sequences. Some DNA-binding proteins enhance transcription by: opening up tightly packed chromatin helping to attract RNA polymerase blocking access to genes

74. Development and Differentiation As cells grow and divide, they undergo differentiation, meaning they become specialized in structure and function. Hox genes control the differentiation of cells and tissues in the embryo. Careful control of expression in hox genes is essential for normal development. All hox genes are descended from the genes of common ancestors.

75. Hox Genes In fruit flies, a series of hox genes determines the basic structure of the fly’s body. Mice have very similar genes on four different chromosomes. The color bars along the mouse’s back show the approximate body area affected by genes of the corresponding colors.