1. The Existence of God p.1 In this unit we will cover the following areas: 1.Can we prove or disprove the existence of God. 2. The significance of belief in God in people’s lives. 3. The responses to the question of God’s existence from a religious and non-religious viewpoint 4. Compare and contrast viewpoints. 5. Your reasoned conclusion supported by your learning from the unit. We will be examining the idea of a Christian God mainly from an objective position.

2. Before we look at some arguments for and against the p.2 existence of God we need to explore: Who or what God is and why does it matter anyway. What does God look like? One famous painting is Michelangelo’s, The Creation of Adam, on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican City, painted around 1511–1512. It is thought to show the Biblical creation story from the Book of Genesis in which God breathes life into Adam.

4. Discussion p.2 What is your idea of what God looks like? Most Christians agree that God cannot be described and see Him more as a spiritual being rather than a physical one. Many descriptions are often in the form of metaphors or analogies. A metaphor is used in language when a comparison is made between two things using words such as ‘like’ or ‘as’. An analogy is often used in theology* to express ideas that are difficult to explain, and comparisons are used to help. So Michelangelo’s painting was metaphorical; he didn’t necessarily believe that was what God looked like, rather, he was trying to portray God’s nature or characteristics.

5. What are God’s characteristics? p.2 There are many ideas of God’s nature or characteristics, but the following description is probably the most popular way of considering Him:  Spiritual not physical  Omniscient – all-knowing  Omnipresent – present everywhere  Omnipotent – all-powerful  Eternal – was not created; always has and always will exist  Benevolent – good/loving

6. Can we prove God’s existence? p.2 We will be looking at the arguments for and against God’s existence later. Before we do that we need to examine the word proof in the context of this unit. Scientists never say they can prove their theories on the creation of the universe or life; they can only back up their theories with evidence. If new evidence comes along; they will re-evaluate their theories; they are always open to change and welcome challenges to their theories. Some see the scientific community’s willingness to continually reassess theories as a strength.

7. However, some* Christians believe there is proof for God’s existence. p.2 - 3 This ‘proof’ may come in the form of revelation. ‘Revelation’ is God revealing his nature. Some of these are:  The Bible: literal* or symbolic* belief of scripture  Religious Experiences: visions, voice of God, numinous (a feeling of becoming one with God)  Special Revelation: miracles (parting of the Red Sea), appearances (delivery of the Ten Commandments) and probably the most important, God revealing himself in the form of Jesus.

8. Check your learning (copy and complete the questions) p3 Work Guide 1.Why are metaphors and analogies used in theology? 2.Give a description of God’s nature or characteristics. 3.Why does science offer only theories for the creation of the universe and life? 4.What is the difference between literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible?

9. Homework Obtain responses from at least 5 people (which should include yourself) to the following: 1a. If you believe in God, what do you think He is like? 1b. Do you have or would you like proof that God exists? 1c. What effect does belief in God have on your life? OR 2a. If you don’t believe in God, what would it take to make you believe? 2b. What effect does not believing in God have on your life?

10. What is the significance of belief in God in people’s lives? Why does it matter? What do your homework results show? Task Complete a statistical analysis As this diagram shows, 84% of the world’s population have a religious belief. Why is this? p.3

11. For as far back as records go, people have believed in higher beings; from paintings found in caves drawn by ancient tribes, Roman & Greek Gods to the present day. p.3

12. By nature, human beings are curious creatures with a need to have questions answered. p.3 - 4 Throughout history humans have come up with various answers to the ‘big’ questions. Some people might ask why it matters and is it not just better getting on our lives and, if God exists, let Him get on with his job. However Christians argue that we can only really understand ourselves and our purpose in life when we recognise and accept the existence of God. Video Clip – What being a Christian means. Transcript p.3-4

13. Christians believe this acceptance is needed both now and for eternity in the afterlife because: p.3 - 4 1.If He is real, we will have to live a ‘good’ life in order to have a good afterlife 2.Believing in one aspect in God may lead to answers to other ‘big’ questions. 3.Belief gives people meaning and purpose to life. 4.Many believe that their faith helps at difficult times in their life. Discussion What do these arguments refer to? What examples can you use to explain them? Task Copy an example into your handout. (p.4)

14. Video clip – What being a Humanist meansVideo clip – What being a Humanist means Transcript p.4-5 Non-believers such as atheists or Humanists might argue that: 1. Not believing in god means that they can get on with life without fear of judgement. 2. Not believing in God allows a person to keep an open mind to all developing scientific theories. 3. Some people may want to believe in God but cannot take ‘a leap of faith’. Discussion What do these arguments refer to? What examples can you use to explain them? Task 1.Copy an example into your handout. (p.5) 2.Choose two reasons why it is important to have belief in God and two reasons why it isn’t. In your handout under My opinion… (p. 5) explain why you agree or disagree with each reason.

15. Check your learning (copy and complete the questions) p3 Work Guide NB If a question asks for 2 reasons but is worth 4 marks you must expand your answers, either explaining further in your own words or giving an example. 1. Give two reasons why Christians argue that belief in God is important. (4) 2. Give two reasons why atheists argue that belief in God is not important. (4) 3. Using what you have learned to back up your answer, give your opinion on the importance of belief in God. (4) NB In Ques 3, you need to make at least 2 well reasoned, detailed points for 4 marks. On A4 paper summarise your learning on who or what God is and the significance of belief.

16. We will now look at three traditional arguments in the Existence of God debate p.6 1. Cosmological Argument (Or First Cause Argument) The word Cosmological means the study of the origins of the universe. To get an idea of ‘first cause’ think about falling dominoes…

17. Read page 88-9 Belief & Science p.6 The Cosmological Argument Or First Cause Argument was put forward by St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274AD), an Italian priest & philosopher

18.  Everything that exists has a cause  Therefore everything must have been caused by something before  Therefore there must have been a First Cause  This First Cause must have been uncaused to set things in motion  The only thing that can be uncaused, by definition, is God  Therefore God must be the First Cause  Therefore God exists p.6

19. Aquinas argued that all things are contingent. This means they rely on something else to have come into existence. However, God is not contingent. He doesn’t rely on anything else to have come into existence. Therefore He is considered to be a necessary being. This means He was necessary for everything else to have come into existence. He created the Universe out of nothing (ex nihilo) because there was nothing else to make it from – He brought everything into existence. p.6

20. Accepting the First Cause Argument p.7 Read page 89 Belief & Science  It is simply a matter of faith.  The argument does away with the idea that cause goes back forever – an idea that our logical minds don’t like.  The argument fits well with what Christians already believe about God.  Saying that God doesn’t need a cause is not a problem for Christians as He is a special case.  Some Christians admit there are flaws in the argument but turn instead to other arguments such as religious experience. The flaws are not enough to make them doubt their belief. Discussion What flaws do you see in the argument?

21. Rejecting the First Cause Argument p.7 Bertrand Russell (1872- 1970), an English philosopher, is a well-known critic of the First Cause argument. Read page 89 -90 Belief & Science

22. Rejecting the First Cause Argument p.7  Logically, you cannot say everything needs a cause and then straight away add that God doesn’t. If this is accepted then it begs the question, what caused God? This is known as the Schoolboy Objection.  If we can say that God didn’t have a cause then why can’t we say the same thing about the Universe – why does the Universe need to have had a cause?  Introducing the idea of an uncaused God makes the problem worse. Using the idea of God being the cause of all causes, creates the need for a bigger, more powerful being who could cause God. This could therefore be argued backwards forever.  Even if there was an uncaused cause why does it have to be the Christian idea of God?  Maybe it was the Christian God but He died or left? Cont.

23. p.7  Science by way of quantum physics presents a big problem for the First Cause argument. Scientific evidence has shown that things in the Universe can spontaneously appear and disappear. If this is the case then ‘all things requiring a cause’ would be wrong and therefore do away with the need for the uncaused cause i.e. God. Niels Bohr (1885 – 1962) Quantum Physicist, first tried to show things can come from nothing.

24. Check your learning (copy and complete the questions) p4 Work Guide 1.Describe the Cosmological Argument. (4) 2.Give two reasons why a Christian might support the Cosmological Argument. (4) 3.Give two reasons why an atheist might reject the Cosmological Argument. (4) 4.Do you think the Cosmological Argument is a good argument for the existence of God? Give two reasons for your answer supported by what you have learned. (4) 5.On A4 paper summarise your learning on the Cosmological Argument i.e Arguments for & against, strengths & weaknesses

25. Scientific Explanation for the Origin of the Universe p.8 The Big Bang Theory The Big Bang is a theory. It is not absolute proof that God doesn’t exist. It is the best theory scientists have for the origins of the Universe using the evidence they have ‘at the moment’ which doesn’t include the need for a creator.

26. The Big Bang Theory p.8  It was an ‘explosion’ at a point known as a singularity.  It happened around 14 billion years ago  It was a chance occurrence – it had no creator; it created itself.  At that point space, time and matter came into existence – in fact everything needed to create the Universe and everything in it that we can see now.  Over long periods of time, natural laws such as gravity, caused galaxies, containing stars & planets, to form.  It is thought Earth formed around 4 billion years ago (10 billion years after the Big Bang)

27. Evidence for the Big Bang Theory p.8 Expanding Universe Analysis of images and data from the Hubble telescope (the distant universe clip) has shown that the rate at which galaxies can be observed moving away from each other shows the universe is still expanding following the initial event around 14 billion years ago.Hubble telescope Scientists believe cosmological redshift is also evidence that the universe is still expanding from the Big Bang.redshift

29. Evidence for the Big Bang Theory p.8 Cosmic Background Radiation This is the radioactive ‘heat’ that scientists would expect to find from the type of ‘explosion’ that occurred at the Big Bang. Relative Abundance of the Elements The materials present, and the quantities of them, are also what scientists would expect to find

30. How convincing is the Big Bang Theory? p.9 At the present time no-one can prove how the Universe was created or if there was a creator, as no-one was there to witness it. Scientists would argue that the Big Bang Theory is the best explanation as:  The Big Bang Theory has strong scientific evidence.  It offers a rational explanation for the creation of the Universe without the need for a creator i.e. God However, Christians might argue that:  Much of the evidence is circumstantial (indirect) which is not as powerful as empirical (direct) evidence.  The evidence is so complex ordinary people cannot understand it and have to put their faith in the scientists ( a bit like faith in God?)  It doesn’t offer any explanation for meaning and purpose in life.  Some Christians accept the Big Bang Theory and see it as God at work.

31. Check your learning (copy and complete the questions) p4 Work Guide 1.Describe the Big Bang Theory. (4) 2.What evidence is there for the Big Bang Theory? (4) 3.Give two reasons why an atheist might find the Big Bang Theory convincing. (2) 4.Give two reasons why a Christian might not be convinced by the Big Bang theory. (2) 5.Do you find the Big Bang Theory convincing? Give two reasons for your answer supported by what you have learned. (4) 6.On A4 paper summarise your learning on the Big Bang Theory i.e. arguments for & against, strengths & weaknesses etc. Attach this to your summary of the Cosmological Argument.

32. 2. Teleological Argument p.10 (Or Design Argument) The word Teleological comes from the Greek word ‘telos’ meaning ‘purpose’. The Natural World is so amazing and complex it might appear to have been designed with a specific purpose in mind. Many believe the only possible explanation for such complexity is that they were designed by someone – God.

33. Those who believe the complexity of the world must point towards a designer, God, often use the following examples:  Plants: The bucket orchid– the only escape for bees from the orchids trap is by taking pollen sacs with them. Plants: The bucket orchid  Birds: Hornbill Hummingbird – these birds can hover and fly backwards due to their ability to beat their wings up to 60 times per second. Birds: Hornbill Hummingbird  Humans and their organs – your eye can make out I million light surfaces. Humans and their organs  The Goldilocks Zone – Earth is the perfect distance from the sun to allow life – any further away and it would be too cold; any closer and it would be too hot (This is also known as the Anthropic Principle) p.10

34. William Paley (1743-1805) an English theologian, put forward the Teleological Argument, using an analogy to argue that the existence of God. Read page134 – 136 Belief & Science p.10

35. Paley’s Analogy p.10  If you were walking along a beach and came across a watch, you would wonder why such a complex thing was there; it couldn’t have just appeared there or come together itself by chance.  You would assume, due to its complexity, the maker of the watch to be very clever; an intelligent designer.  Surely then, the Universe and all its complexity didn’t just appear spontaneously either. It must have also been designed and created.  Therefore God must exist and He must have created the Universe.

36. Accepting the Teleological Argument p.11 Christians might accept the argument as:  It gives reasonable logical support to what the Bible already teaches – that God made the Universe, Earth and all its life for a purpose.  The probability of everything coming together by chance is too ridiculous. Some compare the chances to a tornado blowing through a junkyard and leaving behind a fully functioning jumbo jet.  The more scientific discoveries we make, the more we find the balance of life on Earth perfect for existence. (Intelligent Design - Higher course)

37. Paley responded saying: ‘It is not necessary that a machine be perfect in order to show with what design it was made: still less necessary, where the only question is whether it were made with any design at all’ William Paley: Natural Theology 1800 Paley argues here that even if a watch didn’t always work properly, it is still something that was made. Perhaps the Universe looks to us as if it doesn’t always work well, but as humans, how would we know if that were the case or not? Rejecting the Teleological Argument p.11 Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), a German philosopher, argued that the ‘structure and order’ we see only exists in our minds. He believed that as we didn’t know anything else, we are bound to see it is ‘perfect’. So in his view no argument for God’s existence is needed for the creation of such an ordered universe, as its ‘perfection’ only exists in our minds.

38. This argument that the Universe is not as perfect and ordered as we might think, is often used in response to the Teleological Argument. p.11  If we were to look very closely at a seemingly ‘peaceful’, grassy riverbank on a calm summer’s evening, what we would realise is that it is in fact a fairly violent scene with insects eating each other and acting pretty nastily to each other.  The Universe, Earth and life on it seems to require pain and suffering. For example, almost every animal including ourselves, depends on the death of another for food.  Luck rather than order seems to play a big part in survival. For example, earthquakes and tornadoes appear to be random, and thousands of people lose their lives through them.  The anthropic principle is arrogant in that it implies the perfect distance the Earth is from the sun allows life ‘by design’. However, life is only the way it is because of these conditions, any change in distance would have probably caused different life forms. It also suggests the Earth is here for human benefit – again a rather arrogant idea.

39. David Hume (1711-1776), a famous Scottish philosopher, p.12 had no less than 8 criticisms of the Teleological Argument. Read pages 137-138 1.Maybe the world was designed, but why did the designer have to be the Christian idea of God? 2.Maybe there was a team of Gods – or maybe God designed it and ceased to exist. 3.An ‘argument’ is not the same as ‘proof’. 4.The existence of a designer begs the question ‘who designed the designer?’ 5.Even if it was designed, it tells us nothing about them. 6.If God made himself, then why can’t the Universe have made itself? 7.Maybe the laws of physics are ‘God’. 8.The Universe and everything in it are far from perfect (as we have already examined).

40. More specific criticisms of Paley's Analogy: p.12 Analogies are not ‘proof’ – they only give the ‘likelihood’ of something being true.  Paley’s analogy is weak as it compares two things which are not as similar as they might appear. They may both show complexity but one is organic (naturally occurring) while the other is mechanistic (man- made).

41. Check your learning (copy and complete the questions) p5 Work Guide 1.Describe the Teleological Argument. (4) 2.Give two reasons why a Christian might support the Teleological Argument. (4) 3.Give two reasons why an atheist might reject the Teleological Argument. (4) 4.Do you think the Teleological Argument is a good argument for the existence of God? Give two reasons for your answer supported by what you have learned. (4) 5.On A4 paper summarise your learning on the Teleological Argument i.e. arguments for & against, strengths & weaknesses etc. Attach this to your summary of the Cosmological Argument and the Big Bang Theory.

42. Scientific Explanation for the Origin of Human Life p.13 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882), an English naturalist, published (along with Alfred Russel Wallace) On the Origin of the Species in 1859.

43. A Simple Guide to Darwin’s Theory of Evolution p.13 1.A living thing can only survive if it fits in to the environment in which it lives. 2.Fitting the environment means depending on a close relationship between the living thing’s biology, its food source and the climate. For example, being able to keep warm or being able to reach its food source. 3.The living things which adapted to their living conditions survived, while the others didn’t, becoming extinct. 4.The adaptations developed through generations and were passed on through genes. 5.Just as a dog breeder selects desirable or necessary features to be passed on to offspring, nature selects those species that will develop the necessary features to fit in to an environment. 6.If the environment changes, then only those who are adapted to the change survive allowing them to reproduce and pass the survival advantages to their offspring. An example of natural selection

44. Evidence for the Theory of Evolution p.13  Fossil evidence shows changes in species with time.  Geographical biodiversity shows that different kinds of life seemed to be linked to different places. Much of Darwin’s theory was based on circumstantial evidence, however since his life, much evidence has been found to further support it:  The unlocking of DNA supports evolutionary theory showing random mutations.  Remains of primates have been uncovered which show ancestral links from humans back to early primates.  Experiments such as the Miller-Urey Flask shows that organic matter can be created from inorganic matter which further backs up the theory that all life evolved from single cell organisms.

45. How convincing is the Theory of Evolution? p.14 Atheists might argue:  The evidence for evolution by natural selection is overwhelming  Even if it is not perfect – it is the best we have at the moment  Even if ‘a higher being’ was shown to be involved in evolution, that doesn’t mean it has to be ‘God’  Each time science provides sound evidence, some Christians make it ‘fit’ their idea of ‘God the Creator’, for example the Intelligent Design argument. However Christians might respond:  Scientific theories cannot explain human being consciousness; our ability to love and appreciate the ‘finer’ things in life such as art or music.  Some believe evolution is God’s mechanism for life on Earth  Some such as St Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD), an Algerian philosopher and theologian see the Genesis creation story as an allegory (a story with a meaning). He would have been at ease with the theory of evolution as he saw each ‘day’ of creation as perhaps ‘millions of years’.

46. Check your learning (copy and complete the questions) p5 Work Guide 1.Describe the Theory of Evolution. (4) 2.What evidence is there for the Theory of Evolution? (4) 3.Give two reasons why an atheist might find Evolutionary Theory convincing. (2) 4.Give two reasons why a Christian might not be convinced by Evolutionary Theory. (2) 5.Do you find the Theory of Evolution convincing? Give two reasons for your answer supported by what you have learned. (4) 6. On A4 paper summarise your learning on the Teleological Argument i.e. arguments for & against, strengths & weaknesses etc. Attach this to your summary of the Cosmological Argument, the Big Bang Theory and the Teleological Argument.

47. 3. The Problem of Evil & Suffering p.15 Does the existence of evil & suffering prove there’s no God? The amount of evil & suffering in the world is enough for some people to question either the existence of God or if he does exist, his nature. When considering ‘evil’ in philosophy we think of it as moral evil and natural evil. Moral evil is evil that is caused by humans such as rape, murder or genocide. Natural evil is evil that is caused through natural events such as earthquakes, volcanoes and extreme weather. Read pages 140 - 141

48. For many the existence of evil & suffering is a strong challenge to the existence of God based on the following argument: p.15  If God is all-knowing then he must know about the evil & suffering – even the terrible things that haven’t yet happened.  If He is all-powerful then he must be able to stop any evil and suffering no matter what the cause is.  If he is all-loving, then surely he must want to stop evil in whatever form it happens.  However evil & suffering still happens.  Therefore God must either not know about it, in which case he is not all- knowing, or unable to stop it in which case he is not all-powerful, or unwilling to stop it, in which case he is not all-loving.  So either he isn’t these things or he doesn’t exist.

49. Response to the suffering & evil argument against the existence of God p.15 Most Christians would respond by referring to the ‘The Fall of Adam’ or ‘Original Sin’ Read pages 142 – 143  God gave Adam & Eve the perfect place to live  The only thing God asked was that they did not eat from the tree of knowledge  After persuasion from the serpent (devil) Eve persuades Adam that they should eat from the tree.  God punishes Adam by condemning him to a life of toil and sweat; Eve by making childbirth painful; the serpent (devil) to spend its life slithering on its belly.  Those who understand this story symbolically, see it as the relationship between humans and God being broken and that things never to be the same again for them or anyone coming after them.  All creation was now fallen, and this Fall is how Christians see Sin as coming to Earth.  From then on all suffering & evil would be a result of this Original Sin.

50. The Free Will Defence Argument p.16  Freedom was one of the most important gifts God gave human  This means we can choose what we want to do  If God hadn’t given us this free will we would be like puppets, doing what he wanted with no independence  This freedom can lead to good choices or bad ones  God must allow the consequences of our free will or we are not really free  So Evil & Suffering have to exist if we are to be free John Hick, (1922 – 2012) was a philosopher of religion and theologian. He argued that evil was necessary to safeguard freedom, but also that it provides humans with the challenges they need to grow morally and spiritually. He said that God could stop evil but then we would have to believe in him and faith would no longer be needed.

51. Objections to the argument from Original Sin & Free Will p.16 Video: Scientific Creationist view of the Creation storyVideo: Scientific Creationist view of the Creation story Read page 145  Why did God give Adam & Eve free will then punish them for using it?  Why was God’s punishment so harsh and for all people for all time?  If God is all-knowing he should have been able to foresee what was going to happen and stopped it  The free will defence argument is weak if it means innocent people suffering in order to protect free will for everyone  It also doesn’t explain the existence of natural evil. Christians respond to these objections by saying that free will is God’s gift and should be treasured and that it allows humans to be free. Even though it can have harmful consequences we have to accept it in faith. Christians argue that God has tried throughout history to get our relationship with Him back on track – that’s not a disinterested God. Kevin Bridges on War, Corruption & Greed

52. Check your learning (copy and complete the questions) p6 Work Guide 1.Why do some people question the existence of God or his Nature? (4) 2.Describe the The Fall. (4) 3.Describe the Free Will Defence Theory (4) 4.Give two objections to the argument from The Fall (4) 5.Give two objections to the Free Will Defence Argument (4) 6.How might a Christian respond to the objections ? (4) 7.Do you think the existence of evil & suffering prove there is no God? Give two reasons for your answer supported by what you have learned. (4) 8.On A4 paper summarise your learning on the Problem of Evil & Suffering i.e. arguments for & against, strengths & weaknesses etc. Attach this to your summary.

53. Compare & Contrast Viewpoints p6&7 Work Guide Copy and answer the following: 1.Cosmological Argument a)The Universe exists. b)Everything has a cause. c)There was a starting point for the Universe. d)God was the First Cause. Does the scientific viewpoint agree or disagree with these statements? Give reasons for your answers. 2. The Big Bang Theory The Big Bang is the only explanation for the start of the Universe. Does the Christian viewpoint disagree with this? Give a reason for your answer.

54. 3. Teleological Argument a)The Universe exists. b)The Universe, Earth and life on it shows great complexity. c)The Universe, Earth and life on it shows order. d)This complexity and order points to a designer. e)The chances of life existing as it does now is too incredibly slim to have come about through chance. f)The designer or First Cause is God. Does the scientific viewpoint agree or disagree with these statements? Give reasons for your answers. 4. The Theory of Evolution Evolutionary Theory is the only explanation for all life on Earth. Does the Christian viewpoint disagree with this? Give reasons for your answer.

55. 5. The Problem of Evil & Suffering a)Evil & Suffering exist in the world. b)Original Sin is the reason there is evil & suffering. c)Free will exists. d)Free will is another reason why there is evil & suffering. Does the scientific viewpoint agree or disagree with these statements? Give reasons for your answers.

56. Your reasoned view – copy the following question. ‘God is the best explanation for Earth and all life on it.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? (10 marks)  Note the question is worth 10 marks.  You should therefore aim to make 5 reasoned, detailed points.  To get extra marks use examples, quotes, refer to philosophers by name.  If you use a theological or scientific term, explain it to show you understand what it means.  You don’t always have to give your own opinion – it is sometimes easier to answer from different viewpoints. Nobody is going to check inside your head : )