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2. 2 The History and Scope of Psychology Overview What is Psychology?  Psychology’s Roots  Contemporary Psychology  Psychological Perspectives

3. 3 Psychology’s Roots Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) Aristotle, a naturalist and philosopher, theorized about psychology’s concepts. He suggested that the soul and body are not separate and that knowledge grows from experience. http://faculty.washington.edu

4. 4 Psychology’s Roots  Psychological Science Is Born  Empiricism  Knowledge comes from experience via the senses  Science flourishes through observation and experiment

5. 5 Psychological Science is Born Wundt and psychology’s first graduate students studied the “atoms of the mind” by conducting experiments at Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. This work is considered the birth of psychology as we know it today. Wundt (1832-1920)

6. 6 Psychological Science is Born American philosopher William James wrote an important 1890 psychology textbook. Mary Calkins, James’s student, became the APA’s first female president. James (1842-1910) Mary Calkins

7. 7 Psychological Science is Born Psychology originated in many disciplines and countries. It was, until the 1920s, defined as the science of mental life.

8. 8 Psychological Science is Born Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, and his followers emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior. Freud (1856-1939)

9. 9 Psychological Science Develops Behaviorists Watson and later Skinner emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter of scientific psychology. Watson (1878-1958) Skinner (1904-1990)

10. 10 Psychology’s Subfields: Applied PsychologistWhat she does Clinical Studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders Counseling Helps people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges. Educational Studies and helps individuals in school and educational settings Industrial/ Organizational Studies and advises on behavior in the workplace.

11. 11 Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions Module 2

12. 12 Operational definition A statement of the procedures used to define research variables Allows and facilitates replication of observations Operationally define shoe?

13. 13 Survey Random Sampling If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

14. 14 Correlation When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate. Correlation coefficient Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) r = 0.37 + Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.

15. 15 Scatterplot The Scatterplot below shows the relationship between height and temperament in people. There is a moderate positive correlation of +0.63.

16. 16 Skewed Distributions Positive Mean > Median Negative Mean < Median

17. 17 Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns. Order in Random Events Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.

18. 18 Experimentation Experimentation is the backbone of psychological research. Experiments isolate causes and their effects.

19. 19 Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under (2) control. Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships. Exploring Cause & Effect

20. 20 Evaluating Therapies Double-blind Procedure Neither the participant nor the research assistant knows whether the participant is receiving the treatment or a placebo

21. 21 An independent variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study. For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the independent variable. Independent Variable IV

22. 22 A dependent variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental process. For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable. Dependent Variable DV

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24. 24 FAQ Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender? Q3. Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals?

25. 25 FAQ Q4. Is it ethical to experiment on people? Q5. Is psychology free of value judgments? Q6. Is psychology potentially dangerous?

26. 26 Neural and Hormonal Systems Module 3 “…it has been calculated that the number of possible permutations and combinations of brain activity,..exceeds the number of elementary particles in the known universe.” Ramachandran in A Brief Tour Of Human Consciousness

27. 27 Neural Communication The body’s information system is built from billions of interconnected cells called neurons. A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of many different parts.

28. 28 Myelin sheath “Practice makes Myelin, Myelin makes perfect.” Specialized Glial cells Acts as an electrical insulator Not present on all cells Increases the speed of neural signals down the axon. Myelin Sheath Parts of a Neuron link.50link

29. 29 How neurons communicate Neurons communicate by means of an electrical signal called the Action Potential Action Potentials are based on movements of ions between the outside and inside of the cell When an Action Potential occurs a molecular message is sent to neighboring neurons

30. 30 Action Potential A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane.

31. 31 Threshold Threshold: Each neuron receives excitatory and inhibitory signals from many neurons.

32. 32 Action Potential Properties All-or-None Response: A strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often, but it does not affect the action potentials strength or speed. Intensity of an action potential remains the same throughout the length of the axon.

33. 33 Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending neuron travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron.

34. 34 Types of Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Serotonin Norepinephrine Dopamine Endorphins GABA Glutamate

35. 35 Acetylcholine Found in neuromuscular junction Involved in muscle movements

36. 36 Alzheimer’s Disease Deterioration of memory, reasoning, and language skills Symptoms may be due to loss of ACh neurons

37. 37 Serotonin Serotonin pathways are involved with mood regulation. Prozac works by keeping serotonin in the synapse longer, giving it more time to exert an effect LSD and Seratonin at Nat Geo LSD and Seratonin at Nat Geo 2:21

38. 38 Dopamine Important for movement, rewards & pleasure. Involved with diseases such as schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease. Link dopamine flood at Nat GeoLink dopamine flood at Nat Geo 3:44

39. 39 Endorphins Control pain and pleasure Released in response to pain Morphine and codeine work on endorphin receptors Involved in healing effects of acupuncture Link Endorphins at AM 5:12Link Endorphins at AM

40. 40 Kinds of Neurons Sensory Neurons carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS. Motor Neurons carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect the two neurons.

41. 41 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Sympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. Parasympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy.

42. 42 The Endocrine System The Endocrine System is the body’s “slow” chemical communication system. Communication is carried out by hormones synthesized by a set of glands.

43. 43 The Brain Module 4 Slides from Myers, Runyan, McCubbin, and Jones

44. 44 PET Scan PET (positron emission tomography) Scan is a visual display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form of glucose while the brain performs a given task. Courtesy of National Brookhaven National Laboratories

45. 45 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

46. 46 fMRI - Functional MRI Compares MRI scans taken less than a second apart Detects blood moving to active parts of the brain Shows brain function

47. 47 Brain Stem The Medulla is the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing. Reticular Formation is a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal & attention.

48. 48 Brain Stem The Thalamus is the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

49. 49 The Limbic System is a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebrum, associated with emotions such as fear, aggression and drives for food and sex. It includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. The Limbic System

50. 50 Hypothalamus The Hypothalamus lies below (hypo) the thalamus. It directs several maintenance activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and control of emotions. It helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. "TALE of the hypothalamus": Temperature Appetite Libido Emotion

51. 51 Rats cross an electrified grid for self-stimulation when electrodes are placed in the reward (hypothalamus) center (top picture). Reward Center Sanjiv Talwar, SUNY Downstate

52. 52 Hippocampus Important for memory Damage may cause anterograde amnesia Link 9:58Link

53. 53 The Cerebral Cortex Cerebral Cortex –the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres –the body’s ultimate control and information processing center Glial Cells –cells in the nervous system that are not neurons but that support, nourish, and protect neurons

54. 54 Figure 2.24 The cerebral cortex Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

55. 55 The Cerebral Cortex Frontal Lobes –involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments Parietal Lobes –include the sensory cortex Occipital Lobes –include the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field Temporal Lobes –include the auditory areas Link Frontal lobe development at PBS Link Frontal lobe development at PBS 13:33

56. 56 The Cerebral Cortex

57. 57

58. 58 The Cerebral Cortex Aphasia impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding) Broca’s Area Link Link an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech Wernicke’s Area Link Link an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension Link 7:44 Link 7:44

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60. 60 Split Brain  a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the corpus Callosum.  Sperry and Gazzaniga are key researchers in this area.

61. 61 Behavior Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology Module 5

62. Environmental Influences on Behavior Module 6

63. 63 Environmental Influence  Culture  the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next  Norm  an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior

64. 64 Developmental Issues, Prenatal Development, and the Newborn Module 7

65. 65 Developmental Psychology IssueDetails Nature/Nurture How do genetic inheritance (our nature) and experience (the nurture we receive) influence our behavior? Continuity/Stages Is developmental a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages? Stability/Change Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age.

66. 66 PKU - Phenylketonuria Recessive genetic condition where the child lacks an enzyme to break down phenylalanine Untreated, it can cause problems with brain development, leading to retardation, brain damage, and seizures

67. 67 Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival… Rooting - turning the head and opening the mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek Grasping - curling the fingers around an object Stepping Reflex - reflex that causes newborns to start a stepping motion as they touch a surface

68. 68 Prenatal Development and the Newborn  Preferences  human voices and faces  facelike images, smell and sound of mother preferred

69. 69 Infancy and Childhood Module 8

70. 70 Infancy and Childhood Infancy and childhood span from birth to the teenage years. During these years, the individual grows physically, cognitively, and socially. StageSpan Infancy Newborn to toddler Childhood Toddler to teenager

71. 71 Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development  Schema  a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information, they are building blocks of intellectual development  Schema example 2:23 Schema example

72. 72 Typical Age Range Description of Stage Developmental Phenomena Sensorimotor Birth to nearly 2 years Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing) Object permanence Stranger anxiety Some cause and effect Preoperational About 2 to 6 years Concrete operational About 7 to 11 years Formal operational About 12 through adulthood Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning Pretend play Egocentrism Language development Think in symbols Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations Conservation Mathematical transformations Abstract reasoning, speculationAbstract logic Potential for moral reasoning Piaget’s Stages

73. 73 Piaget Stages Mnemonic Smart People Cook Fish Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, Concrete- operational, Formal- operational

74. 74 Sensorimotor Stage In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e., objects that are out of sight are also out of mind. Doug Goodman Object permanence in dogs Object permanence in dogs 15:20

75. 75 Preoperational Stage Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 6-7 years old, children are in the preoperational stage—too young to perform mental operations.

76. 76 Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development  Conservation  the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

77. 77 Harlow and Attachment  Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments  Monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother

78. 78 Attachment Mary Ainsworth – Strange situation –Unfamiliar playroom –Mother and unfamiliar woman –Women play with baby – leave briefly How to the babies respond? Link 3:15Link

79. 79 Insecure Attachment Some have insecure attachment, 30% –Avoidant – avoid or ignore mother on return –Ambivalent –upset when mom leaves, but vacillate between clingy and angry on return –Disorganized – inconsistent, disturbed, disturbing – may reach out for mom while looking away (Moss 2004) –Link 2:10Link

80. 80 Deprivation of Attachment What happens when circumstances prevent a child from forming attachments? In such circumstances children become: 1.Withdrawn 2.Frightened 3.Unable to develop speech LinkLink 13:20 Attachment Disorder

81. 81 Social Development: Parenting Styles  Authoritarian  parents impose rules and expect obedience  “Don’t interrupt.” “Why? Because I said so.”  Permissive  submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use little punishment  Authoritative  both demanding and responsive  set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open discussion  Rejecting-Neglecting  completely uninvolved; disengaged. Expect little and invest little

82. 82 Adolescence Module 9

83. 83 Developing Morality Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as “Should a person steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” He found stages of moral development. AP Photo/ Dave Martin Link Where is morality at PBS 14:08Where is morality at PBS

84. 84 Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Approximate ageStage Description of Task InfancyTrust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants (1st year) develop a sense of basic trust. ToddlerAutonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year)and doubt do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities. PreschoolerInitiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks (3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent. ElementaryCompetence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying (6 years-inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel puberty) inferior. Mnemonic

85. 85 Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Mnemonic link Mnemonic link Approximate age StageDescription of Task Adolescence Identity vs. roleTeenagers work at refining a sense of self by (teens into confusiontesting roles and then integrating them to 20’s)form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. Young Adult Intimacy vs.Young adults struggle to form close relation- (20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate 40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated. Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri- (40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. Late Adult Integrity vs.When reflecting on his or her life, the older (late 60’s and despairadult may feel a sense of satisfaction or up) failure.

86. 86 Adulthood Module 10

87. 87 Aging and Intelligence It is believed today that fluid intelligence (ability to reason speedily) declines with age, but crystalline intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills) increases. We gain vocabulary and knowledge but lose recall memory and process more slowly.

88. 88 Introduction to Sensation and Perception: Vision Module 11

89. 89 Thresholds Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. Proportion of “Yes” Responses 0.00 0.50 1.00 0 5 10 15 20 25 Stimulus Intensity (lumens)

90. 90 Why Does the “Absolute” Threshold Vary? - Signal Detection Sensitivity: –Intensity of the signal. –Capacity of sensory systems. –Amount of background stimulation, or “noise.” Response criterion reflects one’s willingness to respond to a stimulus. –Influenced by motivation and expectancies.

91. 91 Sensory Adaptation Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. Put a band aid on your arm and after awhile you don’t sense it.

92. 92 Transduction In sensation, the transformation of stimulus energy (sights, sounds, smells) into neural impulses. …we live in the past in a very real way.

93. 93 The Lens Lens: Transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina. Accommodation: The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to help focus near or far objects on the retina.

94. 94 Retina Retina: The light- sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing receptor rods and cones in addition to layers of other neurons (bipolar, ganglion cells) that process visual information.

95. 95 Optic Nerve, Blind Spot & Fovea http://www.bergen.org Optic nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. Blind Spot: Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye because there are no receptor cells located there. Fovea: Central point in the retina around which the eye’s cones cluster.

96. 96 Retina’s Reaction to Light- Receptors  Rods  peripheral retina  detect black, white and gray  twilight or low light  Cones  near center of retina  fine detail and color vision  daylight or well-lit conditions

97. 97 Bipolar & Ganglion Cells Bipolar cells receive messages from photoreceptors and transmit them to ganglion cells, which converge to form the optic nerve.

98. 98 Feature Detection Nerve cells/neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific features, such as edges, angles, and movement…. many cortical cells respond most strongly to specific visual information Ross Kinnaird/ Allsport/ Getty Images

99. 99 Color Blindness Ishihara Test Genetic disorder in which people are blind to green or red colors. This supports the Trichromatic theory.

100. 100 Opponent Process Theory Hering proposed that we process four primary colors combined in pairs of red-green, blue- yellow, and black-white.

101. 101 Opponent Colors Gaze at the middle of the flag for about 60 Seconds. When it disappears, stare at the dot and report whether or not you see Britain's flag.

102. 102 The Other Senses Module 12

103. 103 Frequency (Pitch) Frequency (pitch): Determined by the wavelength of sound. The star player FREQUENTLY PITCHES.

104. 104 The Ear Dr. Fred Hossler/ Visuals Unlimited LinkLink Shepherds ascending scale

105. 105 The Ear Outer Ear/Pinna: Collects and sends sounds to the eardrum. Middle Ear: Chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window. Inner Ear: Innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

106. 106 Cochlea Cochlea: Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear that transforms sound vibrations to auditory signals.

107. 107 Localization of Sounds Because we have two ears, sounds that reach one ear faster than the other ear cause us to localize the sound. 1. Intensity differences 2. Time differences

108. 108 Taste Traditionally, taste sensations consisted of sweet, salty, sour, and bitter tastes. Recently, receptors for a fifth taste have been discovered called “Umami”. Sweet Sour Salty BitterUmami (Fresh Chicken) Taste link at Nova Blocking bitter taste at Nova

109. 109 Chemical Senses: The Flavors and Aromas of Life Olfaction –Olfactory epithelium – top of nasal cavity –Pheromone detection of sweat and urine Vomeronasal organ Influence human female reproductive cycles Inhalation of male sex hormone and mood changes Males may respond to sex hormones

110. 110 Perceptual Organization Module 13

111. 111 Perceptual Organization: Gestalt  Gestalt--an organized whole  tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes  a school of psychology founded in Germany in the 1900s that maintained our sensations are processed according to consistent perceptual rules that result in meaningful whole perceptions, or gestalts.

112. 112 Organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground). Figure Ground Time Savings Suggestion, © 2003 Roger Sheperd.

113. 113 Perceptual Organization: Gestalt  Grouping Principles  proximity--group nearby figures together  similarity--group figures that are similar  continuity--perceive continuous patterns  closure--fill in gaps  connectedness--spots, lines, and areas are seen as unit when connected

114. 114 Depth Perception Visual Cliff Depth perception enables us to judge distances. Gibson and Walk (1960) suggested that human infants (crawling age) have depth perception. Even newborn animals show depth perception. Innervisions

115. 115 Binocular Cues Convergence: Neuromuscular cues. When two eyes move inward (towards the nose) to see near objects and outward (away from the nose) to see faraway objects.

116. 116 Monocular Cues Relative motion: Objects closer to a fixation point move faster and in opposing direction to those objects that are farther away from a fixation point, moving slower and in the same direction.

117. 117 Perceptual Constancy Perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change.

118. 118 Perceptual Interpretation Module 14

119. 119 Waking and Sleeping Rhythms Module 15

120. 120 Biological Rhythms and Sleep Circadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and include sleep and wakefulness. Termed our “biological clock,” it can be altered by artificial light. Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease (morning) melatonin from the pineal gland and increase (evening) it at nightfall. Illustration © Cynthia Turner 2003

121. 121 During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is daydreaming shows theta activity. Sleep Stages 1-2 Theta Waves

122. 122 Stage 5: REM Sleep After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the sleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage 1. Although still asleep, the brain engages in low- amplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps) much like awake-aroused state.

123. 123 1.Insomnia: A persistent inability to fall asleep. Fatal Insomnia Link 43:19 Fatal Insomnia Link 2.Narcolepsy: Overpowering urge to fall asleep that may occur while talking or standing up. Narcoleptic dog 1:49 Narcolepsy 4:00 Narcoleptic dog 1:49Narcolepsy 4:00 3.Sleep apnea: Failure to breathe when asleep. Link 2:27 Link Sleep Disorders

124. 124 Hypnosis Module 16

125. 125 Hypnosis  Hypnosis  a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur  Posthypnotic Amnesia  supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis  induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion

126. 126 Hypnosis: Pain Relief  Dissociation (divided consciousness)  a split in consciousness  allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others  Hidden Observer  Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis

127. 127 Drugs and Consciousness Module 17

128. 128 Dependence & Addiction Continued use of a psychoactive drug produces tolerance. With repeated exposure to a drug, the drug’s effect lessens. Thus it takes greater quantities to get the desired effect.

129. 129 Withdrawal & Dependence 1.Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug users may experience undesirable side effects. 2.Dependence: Absence of a drug may lead to a feeling of physical pain, intense cravings (physical dependence), and negative emotions (psychological dependence).

130. 130 Depressants 1.Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and memory…and increases aggressiveness while reducing self awareness. Daniel Hommer, NIAAA, NIH, HHS

131. 131

132. 132 Depressants 2.Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some examples.

133. 133 Hallucinogens Hallucinogens are psychedelic (mind- manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. Housewife on Acid on CNNHousewife on Acid on CNN 5:01 Another person on AcidAnother person on Acid 8:46 Leary and kids who dropped acid…creepyLeary and kids who dropped acid…creepy 1:14

134. 134 Classical Conditioning Module 18

135. 135 It was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson. Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Sovfoto

136. 136 Classical Conditioning is learning that takes place when an originally neutral stimulus comes to produce a conditioned response because of its association with an unconditioned stimulus.

137. 137 Pavlov’s Experiments Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

138. 138 Pavlov’s Experiments During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

139. 139 Acquisition Acquisition is the initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place. 1.In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus. 2.The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second. One must reliably predict the other.

140. 140 Acquisition The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur.

141. 141 Extinction When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction. A disappeared CR is called extinguished, not extinct.

142. 142 Stimulus Generalization Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization.

143. 143 Stimulus Discrimination Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

144. 144 Biological Predispositions John Garcia Conditioned taste aversions Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli. Internal stimuli—associate better with taste External stimuli—associate better with pain Biological preparedness

145. 145 Behaviorism  John B. Watson  viewed psychology as objective science  generally agreed-upon consensus today  recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes  not universally accepted by all schools of thought today

146. 146 Remember that Little Albert generalized his fear of rats into fear of anything with white fur, including a Santa Claus mask, a rabbit, etc.

147. 147 Operant Conditioning Module 19

148. 148 Shaping Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations. linklink A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate objects of different shapes, colors and sizes. Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc.

149. 149 Types of Reinforcers Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold. Reuters/ Corbis

150. 150 Types of Reinforcement Positive reinforcer (+) –Adds something rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again –Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example Negative reinforcer (-) –Removes something unpleasant that was already in the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again –Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is an example

151. 151 Punishment An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.

152. 152 Schedules of Reinforcement  Variable Ratio (VR)  reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses  like gambling, fishing  very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability  Skinner link 3:58 Skinner link 3:58 SLOT machines show SLOwesT extinction.

153. 153 Updating Skinner’s Understanding Skinner’s emphasis on external control of behavior made him an influential, but controversial figure. Many psychologists criticized Skinner for underestimating the importance of cognitive and biological constraints.

154. 154 Learning By Observation Module 20

155. 155 Learning by Observation Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others. The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward. © Herb Terrace

156. 156 Modeling Violence Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. Children modeling after pro wrestlers Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Glassman/ The Image Works

157. 157 Information Processing Module 21

158. 158 Studying Memory: Information Processing Models Keyboard (Encoding) Disk (Storage) Monitor (Retrieval) Sequential Process How Memory Works Nova

159. 159 Encoding: Serial Position Effect

160. 160 Encoding Meaning Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine. Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.

161. 161 Chunking F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M You already know the capacity of the working memory may be increased by “chunking.” FBI TWA CIA IBM But you didn’t know that you can handle 4 chunks

162. 162 Stress Hormones & Memory Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events. Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Scott Barbour/ Getty Images

163. 163 Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows.

164. 164 Fig. 7-23, p. 286

165. 165 No New Memories Amnesias Anterograde Amnesia (HM) Retrograde amnesia Surgery After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but could not make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia. Memory Intact How memory works at NovaHow memory works at Nova 10:15 Memory intact Surgery No old memories

166. 166 Implicit & Explicit Memory HM is unable to make new memories that are declarative (explicit), but he can form new memories that are procedural (implicit). C B A Towers of Hanoi Link

167. 167 Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory Module 22

168. 168 Forgetting as Interference  Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information  Proactive (forward acting) Interference  disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information  Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference  disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

169. 169 Thinking Module 23

170. 170 Thinking  Cognition  mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating  Cognitive Psychologists  study these mental activities  concept formation  problem solving  decision making  judgment formation

171. 171 Thinking  Concept  mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people  Prototype  mental image or best example of a category  matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)

172. 172 Thinking  Algorithm  methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem  contrasts with the usually speedier–but also more error-prone- -use of heuristics

173. 173 Algorithms Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. Computers use algorithms. S P L O Y O C H Y G If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face 907,200 possibilities.

174. 174 Heuristics Heuristics are mental shortcuts that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms. Heuristics with the psych files Heuristics with the psych files 15:12 B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images

175. 175 Thought Puzzle #1 What got in the way of solving this problem? Mental Set - Old pattern of problem solving is applied to a new problem. Functional Fixedness – A tendency to think about familiar objects in familiar ways which may prevent more creative use of those objects to solve the problem.

176. 176 Functional Fixedness A tendency to think only of the familiar functions of an object. ? Problem: Tie the two ropes together. Use a screw driver, cotton balls and a matchbox.

177. 177 Obstacles in Solving Problems Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias. 2 – 4 – 6 Discover the rule

178. 178 Fixation Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness. The Matchstick Problem: How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles? From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

179. 179 Language and Thought Module 24/CH 11 Sec 2 Language is so powerful that is has “…produced a species that transcends apehood to the same degree by which life transcends mundane chemistry and physics.” Vilayanur S. Ramachandran The Tell Tale Brain pg. xv

180. 180 Language Structure Phonemes: The smallest distinct sound unit in a spoken language. For example: bat, has three phonemes b · a · t chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t Languages have these sounds in common She has mastered the Phonemes but not the meaning…Ken Lee vid 1:14Ken Lee vid

181. 181 Language Structure Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries a meaning. It may be a word or part of a word. For example: Milk = milk Pumpkin = pump. kin Unforgettable = un · for · get · table

182. 182 Language  Semantics  the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language  also, the study of meaning  Syntax  the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

183. 183 Language  Babbling Stage (pre-linguistic event)  beginning at 3 to 4 months  the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language Linguistic Genius of babies at TED 10:18 Linguistic Genius of babies at TED  One-Word Stage  from about age 1 to 2  the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words Link

184. 184 Explaining Language Development cont. 2.Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959, 1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, and thus most of it is inborn.

185. 185 Language Influences Thinking Linguistic Determinism (Whorf hypothesis): language determines the way we think. For example, he noted that the Hopi people do not have the past tense for verbs. Therefore, the Hopi cannot think readily about the past. Link

186. 186

187. 187 Insight Chimpanzees show insightful behavior when solving problems. Sultan uses sticks to get food. Chimp Problem solving: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ySMh1 mBi3cI&NR=1&safety_mode=true&persist _safety_mode=1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOrgO W9LnT4&feature=related&safety_mode=tr ue&persist_safety_mode=1

188. 188 Intelligence Module 25

189. 189 General Intelligence Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis. For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor, and a reasoning ability factor. LinkLink Battle of the Brains 49:23

190. 190 Intelligence and Creativity Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. It correlates somewhat with intelligence. 1.Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base. 2.Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in novel ways, recognize patterns and make connections. 3.A Venturesome Personality: A personality that seeks new experiences rather than following the pack. 4.Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from within, must enjoy challenges. 5.A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive environment allows creativity to bloom. Creativity on TED

191. 191 Alfred Binet Alfred Binet practiced a modern form of intelligence testing by developing questions that would predict children’s future progress in the Paris school system.

192. 192 Lewis Terman In the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test for American school children and named the test the Stanford-Binet Test. The following is the formula of Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

193. 193 Normal Curve Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.

194. 194 Reliability A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To establish reliability researchers establish different procedures: 1.Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are. 2.Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.

195. 195 Validity Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is supposed to measure or predict. 1.Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait. 2.Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.

196. 196 Genetic Influences Studies of twins, family members, and adopted children together support the idea that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence.

197. 197 Adoption Studies Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted parents.

198. 198 Introduction to Motivation: Hunger Module 26 Link: Battle at Kruger 8:24 Link

199. 199 Drive Reduction Theory Cont. Primary Drives –Unlearned Food Water Temperature regulation Food Drive Reduction Organism Stomach Full Empty Stomach (Food Deprived) Secondary Drives –Learned Money Shelter Job

200. 200 Homeostasis -tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state -regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level

201. 201 Incentive Where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives. A food-deprived person who smells baking bread (incentive) feels a strong hunger drive.

202. 202 Hierarchy of Needs

203. 203 Body Chemistry & the Brain Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. Rat Hypothalamus Glucose Molecule

204. 204 Hypothalamic Centers The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger (stimulation). Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in eating. The reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in the LH, which leads rats to eat ravenously. Lateral nucleus – Causes us to start eating and keep eating. (LATERAL) "Late night snack": LATEral is snacking [feeding] center.

205. 205 Hypothalamic Centers The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy the VMH, and the animal eats excessively. Richard Howard Ventromedial nucleus - Causes us to stop eating and not be interested in food. (VomitMeal)

206. 206 Hypothalamus & Hormones The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that are related to hunger. HormoneTissueResponse Orexin increaseHypothalamusIncreases hunger Ghrelin increaseStomachIncreases hunger Insulin increasePancreasIncreases hunger Leptin increaseFat cellsDecreases hunger PPY increaseDigestive tractDecreases hunger

207. 207 Motivation-Hunger  Set Point  the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set  when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight  Basal Metabolic Rate  body’s base rate of energy expenditure

208. 208 Sexual Motivation Module 27

209. 209 Motivation at Work Module 28

210. 210 Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology Overview Applies psychological principles to the workplace. 1.Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of selecting and evaluating workers. 2.Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity. 3.Human Factors Psychology: Explores how machines and environments can be designed to fit our natural perception.

211. 211 Sources of Achievement Motivation Why does one person become more motivated to achieve than another? Parents and teachers have an influence on the roots of motivation. Emotional roots: learning to associate achievement with positive emotions. Cognitive roots: learning to attribute achievements to one’s own competence, thus raising expectations of oneself.

212. 212 Setting Specific, Challenging Goals Specific challenging goals motivate people to reach higher achievement levels, especially if there is feedback such as progress reports.

213. 213 Theories and Physiology of Emotion Module 29

214. 214 James-Lange Theory James-Lange Theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience.

215. 215 Cannon-Bard Theory Proposed that an emotion-triggering stimulus and the body's arousal take place simultaneously.

216. 216 Schachter and Singer’s Two- Factor Theory Our physiology and cognitions create emotions. Emotions have two factors–physical arousal and cognitive label. Two factory theory on the psych files Two factory theory on the psych files 24:17

217. 217 Figure 13.1 Theories of emotion Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

218. 218 Expressing and Experiencing Emotion Module 30

219. 219 Culture and Emotional Expression When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did fairly well at recognizing them (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989). Elkman & Matsumoto, Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expression of Emotion

220. 220 Venting anger through action or fantasy ---- achieves an emotional release or “catharsis.” Opposing Theory-- Expressing anger breeds more anger, and through reinforcement it is habit- forming. Catharsis Hypothesis

221. 221 Stress and Illness Module 31

222. 222 General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) According to Selye, a stress response to any kind of stimulation is similar. The stressed individual goes through three phases. EPA/ Yuri Kochetkov/ Landov

223. 223 Stress and the Heart Stress that leads to elevated blood pressure may result in coronary heart disease, a clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle. Plaque in coronary artery Artery clogged

224. 224 Personality Types Type A is a term used for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people. Type B refers to easygoing, relaxed people (Friedman and Rosenman, 1974). Type A personalities are more likely to develop coronary heart disease.

225. 225 Stress and Colds People with the highest life stress scores were also the most vulnerable when exposed to an experimental cold virus.

226. 226 Promoting Health Module 32

227. 227 Promoting Health  Biofeedback  An electronic technique that enables a person to control physiological responses that are normally involuntary  blood pressure  muscle tension

228. 228 The Psychoanalytic Perspective Module 33 Your conscious life, in short, is nothing but an elaborate post-hoc rationalization of things you really do for other reasons. Ramachandran in A Brief Tour of Human Consciousness

229. 229 Dream Analysis Another method to analyze the unconscious mind is through interpreting manifest and latent contents of dreams.

230. 230 Id, Ego and Superego The Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. The ego functions as the “executive” and mediates the demands of the id and superego. The superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

231. 231 Defense Mechanisms 3.Reaction Formation causes the ego to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their opposites. People may express feelings of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings about sex. 4.Projection leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

232. 232 Assessing Unconscious Processes Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind’s perspective would require a psychological instrument (projective tests) that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.

233. 233 The Humanistic Perspective Module 34

234. 234 Humanistic Perspective Focuses on mental capabilities that set humans apart; self awareness, creativity, planning, decision making, responsibility. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Carl Rogers (1902-1987) http://www.ship.edu Mnemonic CRAM C arl R odgers A braham M aslow

235. 235 Self-Actualizing Person Maslow proposed that we as individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs, we try to reach the state of self-actualization— fulfilling our potential. http://www.ship.edu

236. 236 Person-Centered Perspective Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self- actualization tendencies. He said that Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude of acceptance of others despite their failings. Michael Rougier/ Life Magazine © Time Warner, Inc.

237. 237 Assessing the Self All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-Concept. In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were close the individual had a positive self-concept.

238. 238 Contemporary Research on Personality Module 35

239. 239 The Trait Perspective  Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)  the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests  originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use)  now used for many other screening purposes

240. 240 Evaluating the Trait Perspective The Person-Situation Controversy Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the resulting behavior in various situations is different. Therefore, traits are not good predictors of behavior.

241. 241 Social-Cognitive Perspective In his social-cognitive theory Albert Bandura (1999; 2006) sees personality as shaped by the ways in which thoughts, behavior, and the environment interact and influence one another. Albert Bandura

242. 242 Personal Control External locus of control refers to the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own fate. Self efficacy: learned expectations about probability of success

243. 243 Learned Helplessness When unable/unwilling to avoid repeated adverse events an animal or human learns helplessness. Low self efficacy

244. 244 Introduction to Psychological Disorders Module 36

245. 245 Defining Psychological Disorders Mental health workers view psychological disorders as persistently harmful thoughts, feelings, and actions. When behavior is deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional psychiatrists and psychologists label it as disordered (Comer, 2004).

246. 246 Deviant, Distressful & Dysfunctional 1.Deviant behavior in one culture may be considered normal, while in others it may lead to arrest. 2.Deviant behavior must accompany distress. 3. If a behavior is dysfunctional it is clearly a disorder. Carol Beckwith Woodabe clipWoodabe clip at youtube

247. 247 Goals of DSM 1.Describe (400) disorders. 2.Determine how prevalent the disorder is. Disorders outlined by DSM-IV are reliable. Therefore, diagnoses by different professionals are similar. Others criticize DSM-IV for “putting any kind of behavior within the compass of psychiatry.”

248. 248 Anxiety, Dissociative, Somatoform and Personality Disorders Module 37

249. 249 Anxiety Disorders Feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety. 1.Generalized anxiety disorder 2.Panic disorder 3.Phobias 4.Obsessive-compulsive disorder 5.Post-traumatic stress disorder

250. 250 Panic Disorder Minutes-long episodes of intense dread which may include feelings of terror, chest pains, choking, or other frightening sensations. Anxiety is a component of both disorders. It occurs more in the panic disorder, making people avoid situations that cause it. link Symptoms

251. 251 Phobias Marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that disrupts behavior.

252. 252 Kinds of Phobias Phobia of blood.Hemophobia Phobia of closed spaces Phobia of closed spaces Link. Claustrophobia Phobia of heights link.Acrophobia Phobia of open places.Agoraphobia Arachnophobia at National Geographic Link

253. 253 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Persistence of repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and urges to engage in repetitive behaviors (compulsions) that cause distress. ClipClip

254. 254 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Four or more weeks of the following symptoms constitute post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): 1.Haunting memories 2.Nightmares 3.Social withdrawal 4.Jumpy anxiety 5.Sleep problems Bettmann/ Corbis

255. 255 Somatoform Disorders Psychological problems in which there are symptoms of a physical disorder without a physical cause.

256. 256 Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) A disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities, formerly called multiple personality disorder. LinkLink Chris Sizemore (DID) Lois Bernstein/ Gamma Liason

257. 257 Personality Disorders Personality disorders are characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning. Link 58:55 Link

258. 258 Antisocial Personality Disorder A disorder in which the person (usually men) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. LinkLink 6:29 Formerly, this person was called a sociopath or psychopath.

259. 259 Mood Disorders Module 38

260. 260 Major Depressive Disorder Major depressive disorder occurs when signs of depression last two weeks or more and are not caused by drugs or medical conditions. 1.Lethargy and fatigue 2.Feelings of worthlessness 3.Loss of interest in family & friends 4.Loss of interest in activities Signs include:

261. 261 Pharmacology Bipolar disorders most effectively treated with tricyclic antidepressants and Lithium Carbonate Lithium serves as a mood stabilizer

262. 262 Social-Cognitive Perspective The social-cognitive perspective suggests that depression arises partly from self-defeating beliefs and negative explanatory styles.

263. 263 Schizophrenia Module 39

264. 264 Schizophrenia The literal translation is “split mind” which refers to a split from reality. A group of severe disorders characterized by the following: 1.Disorganized and delusional thinking. 2.Disturbed perceptions. 3.Inappropriate emotions and actions. LinkLink 58:42

265. 265 Disorganized & Delusional Thinking Many psychologists believe disorganized thoughts occur because of selective attention failure (fragmented and bizarre thoughts).

266. 266 Disturbed Perceptions A schizophrenic person may perceive things that are not there (hallucinations). Most such hallucinations are auditory and lesser visual, somatosensory, olfactory, or gustatory. L. Berthold, Untitled. The Prinzhorn Collection, University of Heidelberg August Natter, Witches Head. The Prinzhorn Collection, University of Heidelberg Photos of paintings by Krannert Museum, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

267. 267 Understanding Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a disease of the brain exhibited by the symptoms of the mind. Dopamine Overactivity: Researchers found that schizophrenic patients express higher levels of dopamine D4 receptors in the brain. Drugs that block these sites help schizophrenic patients. Brain Abnormalities

268. 268 Abnormal Brain Morphology Schizophrenia patients may exhibit morphological changes in the brain like enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles. Both Photos: Courtesy of Daniel R. Weinberger, M.D., NIH-NIMH/ NSC

269. 269 The Psychological Therapies Module 40

270. 270 Psychoanalysis: Methods Through free association eventually the patient opens up and reveals his or her innermost private thoughts. Developing positive or negative feelings may be transference towards the therapist.

271. 271 Behavior Therapy Therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors. To treat phobias or sexual disorders, behavior therapists do not delve deeply below the surface looking for inner causes. Link AM The Mind

272. 272 Classical Conditioning Techniques Counterconditioning is a procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors. It is based on classical conditioning and includes exposure therapy and aversive conditioning.

273. 273 Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning procedures enable therapists to use behavior modification, in which desired behaviors are rewarded and undesired behaviors are either unrewarded or punished. In institutional settings, therapists may create a token economy in which patients exchange a token of some sort, earned for exhibiting the desired behavior, for various privileges or treats.

274. 274 Cognitive Therapy Teaches people adaptive ways of thinking and acting based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.

275. 275 Group & Family Therapies Group therapy normally consists of 6-9 people attending a 90-minute session that can help more people and costs less. Clients benefit from knowing others have similar problems. © Mary Kate Denny/ PhotoEdit, Inc.

276. 276 Community Psychology A movement to minimize or prevent psychological disorders through changes in social systems and through community mental health programs. Deinstitutionalization: The release of those with mental disorders from mental hospitals for the purpose of treating them in their home communities

277. The Biomedical Therapies Module 42

278. 278 Drug Therapies Psychopharmacology is the study of drug effects on mind and behavior. With the advent of drugs, hospitalization in mental institutions has rapidly declined.

279. Mood-Stabilizing Medications Lithium Carbonate, a common salt, has been used to stabilize manic episodes in bipolar disorders.

280. 280 Brain Stimulation Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) ECT is used for severely depressed patients who do not respond to drugs.

281. 281 Social Thinking Module 43

282. 282 Focuses in Social Psychology Social psychology scientifically studies how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. “We cannot live for ourselves alone.” Herman Melville

283. 283 Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations Attribution Theory: Fritz Heider (1958) suggested that we have a tendency to give causal explanations for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition. http://www.stedwards.edu Fritz Heider

284. 284 Fundamental Attribution Error Fundamental Attribution Error. The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing the behaviors of others. We see Joe as quiet, shy, and introverted most of the time, but with friends he is very talkative, loud, and extroverted.

285. 285 Small Request – Large Request In the Korean War, Chinese communists solicited cooperation from US army prisoners by asking them to carry out small errands. By complying to small errands they were likely to comply to larger ones. Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

286. 286 Actions Can Affect Attitudes Why do actions affect attitudes? One explanation is that when our attitudes and actions are opposed, we experience tension. This is called cognitive dissonance. LinkLink 4:54 To relieve ourselves of this tension we bring our attitudes closer to our actions (Festinger, 1957).

287. 287

288. 288 Social Influence Module 44

289. 289 Group Pressure & Conformity Suggestibility is a subtle type of conformity, adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard.

290. 290 Group Pressure & Conformity Informational Social Influence: An influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality. Link 1:58 Link William Vandivert/ Scientific American

291. 291 Conditions that Increase Conformity 1.One is made to feel incompetent or insecure. 2.The group has at least three people. (but no appreciable increase over 3) 3.The group is unanimous. 4.One admires the group’s status and attractiveness. 5.One has no prior commitment to a response. 6.The group observes one’s behavior. 7.One’s culture strongly encourages respect for a social standard.

292. 292 Milgram’s Study: Results Milgram on Youtube

293. 293 Diffusion of Responsibility/Bystander Intervention Effect The phenomenon where a person is less likely to take responsibility for an action or inaction when others are present. The greater number of bystanders who witness an emergency the less likely it is that any one of them will intervene to help. Link 3:36 Bystander effect LinkLink

294. 294 Lessons from the Conformity and Obedience Studies In both Asch's and Milgram's studies, participants were pressured to choose between following their standards and being responsive to others.

295. 295 Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others Social facilitation: Refers to improved performance on tasks in the presence of others. Triplett (1898) noticed cyclists’ race times were faster when they competed against others than when they just raced against the clock. Michelle Agnis/ NYT Pictures

296. 296 Social Loafing The tendency of an individual in a group to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when tested individually (Latané, 1981).

297. 297 Deindividuation The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. Mob behavior

298. 298 Effects of Group Interaction Group Polarization enhances a group’s prevailing attitudes through a discussion. If a group is like- minded, discussion strengthens its prevailing opinions and attitudes.

299. 299 Social Relations Module 45

300. 300 Influences Genetic Influences: Animals have been bred for aggressiveness for sport and at times for research. Neural Influences: Some centers in the brain, especially the limbic system (amygdala) and the frontal lobe, are intimately involved with aggression.

301. 301 The Psychology of Attraction 1.Proximity: Geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship. 2.Mere exposure effect: Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases its attraction.

302. 302 Psychology of Attraction 4.Similarity: Similar views among individuals causes the bond of attraction to strengthen. Similarity breeds content! The more people are alike the more their liking endures. (Byrne 1971)