1. Chapter 5 Learning Disabilities

2. Brief History
Foundation Phase ( ) – basic scientific research related to the brain – damage to specific areas and corresponding losses.
Transition Phase ( ) – application of brain research to children. Similarities between characteristic of children with learning problems and adults who have suffered brain injury
Integration Phase ( ) – term LD was coined and emphasized perceptual skills

3. Learning Disabilities
Term coined in 1963
Children who were having serious difficulties in learning to read, were hyperactive, or could not solve math problems.
Parents liked the term and formed the Association for Children with Learning Disabilities (now ACALD).
In 1975 LD was included as a special ed category in IDEA.
Largest category in special ed.

4. IDEA Definition of Learning Disabilities (LD)
A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language
May manifest itself in an imperfect ability to:
Listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do math
Does not include learning problem that is the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of MR, emotional disturbance, or environmental, cultural, economical disadvantage.

5. The NJCLD Definition of LD
A general term that refers to a group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or math abilities
Problems with self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and social interaction may coexist but do not themselves constitute a learning disability
Although learning disabilities may occur with other handicapping conditions or with extrinsic influences they are not the result of those influences
Why has the concept of LD proven so difficult to define?

6. Why so difficult?
Different kinds of academic skills student are expected to learn
Wide-range of differences among learners
No large group of children are expected to learn at the same rate
Definition provides no info on how to teach a particular student
Better to spend time developing and delivering effective instruction than debating over a definition

7. Operationalizing the Definition
Most states require three criteria be met to receive services:
Discrepancy between intelligence and achievement
An “unexpected” difference between general ability and achievement
Exclusion criterion
LD can occur with other disabilities but the learning problems must not be “primarily the result” of the other disability or other condition (e.g., low SES)
A need for special education services
The student shows specific and severe learning problems despite normal educational efforts

8. Identifying Students
Response to Intervention (RTI) –Process to determine learning disabilities based on the student’s response to scientific, research-based interventions.
Standardized Testing – Intelligence and achievement tests.
Associated with problems in listening, reasoning, memory, attention, selecting and focusing on relevant stimuli, and perception and processing of specific information.

9. Characteristics
Students with LD experience one or more of the following difficulties:
Reading problems - 90% of all children identified
Deficits in written language - Perform lower across most written expression tasks
Underachievement in math - 50% have math IEP goals
Poor social skills - 75% have social skills deficits
Behavioral problems
Defining Characteristic
Specific and significant achievement deficits in the presence of adequate overall intelligence

10. Prevalence
LD is by far the largest of all special education categories
51% of all children with disabilities receive services under the LD category
5 out of every 100 students in the U.S. is diagnosed with LD
Males with LD outnumber females by 3-to-1
The number of children identified is growing

11. Question
Do most students who are identified as learning disabled have a true disability? Or are they just poor achievers or victims of poor instruction?

12. Answer Probably both School defined phenomenon
The process of learning academic skills is not fundamentally different from learning other skills – so while LR as specific to certain skills, individuals may have difficulties in learning across a variety of settings and situations.
Difficulties in school will not magically disappear after graduation

13. Causes In almost every case the cause is unknown
Brain damage or dysfunction (CNS)
In most cases there is no evidence of brain damage
Heredity
There is growing evidence that genetics may account for at least some family linkage with dyslexia
Biochemical imbalance
Flavorings/colors
Synthesize vitamins
Most professionals give little credence to biochemical imbalance as a cause
Environmental factors
Impoverished living conditions early in a child’s life and poor instruction probably contribute to achievement deficits
Many students’ learning problems can be remediated by direct, intensive, and systematic instruction

14. Problem
What is the problem of placing too much emphasis on theories linking LD to brain damage dysfunction?

15. Problem
Not all children with LD display clinical evidence of brain damage and not all children with LD have brain damage
Built-in excuse for ineffective instruction
Etiology will not alter the methods of teaching the student

16. Assessment Five forms of assessment are frequently used
Standardized tests
Used to measure achievement and IQ
Criterion-referenced tests
Student’s score compared to a mastery criterion to identify specific skills in need of instruction
Informal reading inventories
Used to determine student’s reading level
Curriculum-based measurement
Frequent assessment of a student’s progress in learning the objectives of the curriculum
Direct daily measurement
Observing and recording a child’s performance on a specific skill each day it is taught

17. Educational Approaches
Difficulty organizing information of their own
Limited background knowledge to many academic activities
Do not approach learning tasks in effective and efficient way

18. Educational Approaches
Explicit/Direct instruction
Provide a sufficient range of examples to illustrate a concept
Provide models of proficient performance
Have students explain how and why they make decisions
Provide frequent, positive feedback for student performance
Provide adequate practice opportunities
Content enhancements (organization, comprehension and retention)
Guided notes
Graphic organizers and visual displays
Mnemonics
Learning strategies
Students use task-specific strategies to guide themselves successfully through a learning task or problem

19. Educational Placement Alternatives
Regular classroom
During the school year, 45% of students with LD were educated in regular classrooms
Some school districts employ a collaborative teaching model to support the full inclusion of students with LD
Consultant teacher
Provides support to regular classroom teachers who work directly with students with learning disabilities
Resource room
A resource room is a specially staffed and equipped classroom where students with LD come for one or several periods during the school day to receive individualized instruction

20. Current Issues and Future Trends
The discussion and debate over what constitutes a true learning disability are likely to continue
Most professionals and advocates for students with LD do not support full inclusion
Students with LD possess positive attributes and interests that teachers should identify and try to strengthen

21. Eckert et al. (2002)
Purpose: Whether the effectiveness of an antecedent intervention could be enhanced by combining with either of two consequences – reinforcement and feedback.
Participants: 6 elementary school students. Experienced reading difficulties.
Dependent measure: Number of words read correctly per minute

22. Eckert et al. (2002) Independent Variables Results
Antecedent intervention – Listening passage preview and repeated readings
AI and Contingent reinforcement – Preferred item delivered contingent upon accuracy (improvement)
AI and Performance feedback – Setting goals, information about performance, and graphing
Results
Combination of AI +CR or PF was more effective than AI alone.