1. Spinning to see how good/bad they will act for day

2. The Moral Reasoning of Children
Lawrence Kohlberg
The Moral Reasoning of Children
Fall 2010
Mebane & Frassrand

3. A set of values that a person follows.
Morality
A set of values that a person follows.
Actions which are preceded by moral judgments; they take priority over all other value judgments; implicate judgment of one’s self as either good or bad; and they tend towards a high degree of generality, universality, consistency, and inclusiveness (Kohlberg’s dissertation)
According to Dictionary.com. Morality = Conformity to the rules of right conduct; moral or virtuous conduct.

4. Hypothesis
Children will fall into one of Kohlberg’s six stages of moral reasoning.
After being asked questions, the children will answer them consistently every time.
The reasonings of younger children will fall in the preconventional reasoning group, while the reasoning of older children will fall in the postconventional reasoning group.

5. Biography Born October 25, 1927 in New York, to a well-to-do family
Youngest of four children
Raised Jewish (like Vygotsky!!)
Attended Andover Academy for High School
Did not immediately go to college, instead became an engineer on a ship in Europe.
Went to college at University of Chicago
Scored so high on admissions tests that he only had to take a few classes to earn Bachelor's degree (which he did in only one year!)
**amanda**
Attended Andover Academy for HS; this school was for extremely bright students who came from wealthy families.
After graduating from high school at the end of World War II, he volunteered as an engineer on a ship that was smuggling Jewish refugees from Europe to Palestine through the British blockade. He was captured, interred in Cyprus, escaped, fled to a kibbutz in Palestine, and made his way back to the United States where he joined another crew transporting refugees.

6. Biography cont. Graduated with his Ph.D. in 1958 (Univ. of Chicago)
Intended to become Clinical Psychologist
Instead became interested in Piaget and his theories of moral development in children and adolescents
Professor at the University of Chicago ( ), and later at Harvard ( )
Responsible for creation of “Moral Development” as a field within Psychology
Contracted a tropical disease while doing research in Belize
Struggled with Depression
Died on January 17, 1987 reportedly of having committed suicide
**amanda** -During the years of he became the assistant professor of psychology  -He became an associate professor of psychology and human development at Chicago during the years , and then later became a professor of education and social psychology for Harvard University

7. **amanda**

8. Bibliography of Works
A Cognitive-Developmental Analysis of Children's Sex-Role Concepts and Attitudes (1966)
The Meaning and Measurement of Moral Development (1981)
The Philosophy of Moral Development: Moral Stages and the Idea of Justice (1981) - used
The Psychology of Moral Development: The Nature and Validity of Moral Stages (1984) - used
Child Psychology and Childhood Education: A Cognitive Developmental View (1987)
Constructivist Early Education, Overview an Comparison With Our Program: Overview and Comparison With Other Programs (1989)
The Stages of Ethical Development: From Childhood Through Old Age (1991)
**amanda**

9. Kohlberg’s Philosophy of Education
Believed that there should be a cooperative effort in all that people do, i.e. that they should work together as a community.
Believed also that group discussions and debates are the best way to learn.
This is important because in a collective group, you are more able to form ideas (notion of social contract)
Kohlberg would approve of Mrs. Khirallah’s classroom setting because it is a seminar style class, allowing for interactive learning.
He would not approve of lecture style because students are not easily able to participate and debate different ideas and moral aspects.
**amanda**

10. Piaget and Kohlberg Piaget’s work had a direct influence on Kohlberg
Kohlberg based his work off of Piaget’s theory of moral development.
Found Piaget’s work to be impressive, yet “incomplete” (Crain, p.152)
Decided to expand upon Piaget in order to enhance his theory.
Added two more stages to Piaget’s theory because he did not think that Piaget’s stages were thorough enough.
Kohlberg’s development of moral reasoning
**amanda**Piaget: Moral Development
Kohlberg: Moral Reasoning
Instead of simply looking at the moral reasonings of children, “Kohlberg extended Piaget’s theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan”.

11. Kohlberg’s Six Stages of Moral Reasoning
In order to do what is right, on must first know what is right
How do children understand what kind of behaviors are right, and which are wrong?
Established three different levels in which moral reason is developed. In each level there are two stages, an early stage and a late stage.

12. Level I: Preconventional
Children ages 4 to 10 years old typically fall within in this stage.
This level is characterized by one-dimensional thinking
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Conception that there is a set of rules handed down by an authority figure (parents, teachers) that must be obeyed, otherwise punishment will follow.
Children are very ego-centric. They are unable to consider the perspectives of others.
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
Move towards reciprocity and idea that what is right is also fair.
Ex: stage 1. “Stealing is bad because you will get punished”. Stage 2. if somebody hits you, you hit them back—only fair.
Person follows only what they believe is right (i.e. what is fair)
All about serving the needs and desires of the person
Res-o-pro-city

13. Level II: Conventional
Children ages years typically fall in this stage
Focused on social relationships, duties, and conventions
The child in this stage tends act in accordance to what society defines as right.
Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships
Awareness of shared emotions, agreement, and expectations. Attempts to gain approval and to avoids disapproval and rejection from others
Stage 4: Authority and Social Order Maintaining Orientation
Abide by codes of law and order and respect to authority
Examples: “If you steal from the store, your family will think bad of you”
All about living up to what people think of you
Abiding by another’s rules
Acting in the interesting of preserving mutual relationships
Guided by: trust, loyalty, respect, and gratitude.

14. Level III: Postconventional
Adolescents and adults typically fall within this level.
Focuses on ideals and principles.
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
Being aware of the values and opinions of others
Taking into consideration the values and rules of society
Stage 6: Universal Principles
Doing what is best not because it is right, but because it is what needs to be done
Most important: the move away from a one dimensional way of thinking, to a two dimensional way of thinking
Although not all people achieve stage six, those who do, have achieved and mastered all of the other five stages.

15. Developing 6 Stages Kohlberg wrote a series of dilemmas
Used to assess the moral reasoning of children and adults
The most famous is the Heinz Dilemma
Invariant Sequences
Hierarchical Integration
That there was a Cross-Cultural Universality

16. Criticisms
Carol Gilligan argued that Kohlberg’s work is biased as he exclusively interviewed boys. She argued that girls have a different orientation towards moral reasoning.
Kohlberg’s stance that his stages are universal have also been argued against, as he did not take in consideration other cultures outside of America.
List of 10 ‘Universal Moral’ Issues:
1) Laws and Rules 6) Contract, Trust, and Justice
2) Conscience 7) Punishment
3) Personal Roles of Affection 8) The Value of Life
4) Authority 9) Property Rights and Values
5) Civil Rights 10) Truth
Kohlberg taught and believed that no matter where you are, you will always be able to see and find these same 10 “moral issues”.
From Hersh, Paolitto, and Reimer; p.64

18. Dilemma VII Two Brothers
Two young men, brothers, had got into serious trouble. They were secretly leaving town in a hurry and needed money. Karl, the older one, broke into a store and stole a thousand dollars. Bob, the younger one, went to a retired old man who was known to help people in town. He told the man that he was very sick and that he needed a thousand dollars to pay for an operation. Bob asked the old man to lend him the money and promised that he would pay him back when he recovered. Really Bob wasn't sick at all, and he had no intention of paying the man back. Although the old man didn't know Bob very well, he lent him the money. So Bob and Karl skipped town, each with a thousand dollars.

19. The Questions
1a. Which is worse, stealing like Karl or cheating like Bob?
1b. Why is that worse?
2. What do you think is the worst thing about cheating the old man?
2a. Why is that the worst thing?
3. In general, why should a promise be kept?
4. Is it important to keep a promise to someone you don't know well or will never see again?
4a. Why or why not?
5. Why shouldn't someone steal from a store?
6. What is the value or importance of property rights?
7. Should people do everything they can to obey the law?
7a. Why or why not?
8. Was the old man being irresponsible by lending Bob the money?
8a. Why or why not?

20. OUR STUDY Kohlberg’s VII Dilemma
Four participants (all homeschooled siblings)
Male age 5
Male age 8
Female age 11
Male age 13
Note: this participant has a learning difference
Interviews were conducted orally
Data was collected with a recorder then later transcribed
The interviews were conducted in one of the Resident Halls.
We chose to do this study because we thought that it would be interesting to study the moral reasonings of children and to see if Kohlberg’s theory held true, or if his stages were not actually fixed like he thought they were.

21. Kohlberg’s Characteristics of Moral Types
Value: Modes of attributing moral value to acts and persons. Differentiating and relating means and ends, intentions and consequences, one person’s evaluation and others, etc. Modes of assessing value-consequences in the situation
Choice: The kind of identification with the actor in conflict and methods of resolving the conflict. The social process of moral argumentation and the capacity for making and maintaining an independent choice. The outcome chosen in the particular situation.
Sanction: The dominant rewards, punishments or goals to which conformity is oriented.
Stealing Rule: The type of concept against which an act is assessed, on which guides conformity, e.g., taboo, rule, law. The concept of duty or moral compulsion.
Cheating and Good Self: Modes of defining concepts of good person and good role.
Justice: Concern for and concepts of rights and the legitimate relation of one act, as deserved, to another. Standards of exchange, reciprocity, contract, punishment, and reward.

22. Kohlberg’s Coding Form
Type
Value
2. Choice and 3. Sanctions
4. Stealing Rule
Intention-Cheater had no intention of returning so worse
Restorability re the victim’s interest or authority
Damage-Amount of physical damage done
Punishment
The worse is the one with the worse fixed punishment
Punishment or trouble with some sense of affect, severity later regret, etc.
One is worse because he is able to escape punishment
Labeling-”breaking law,” “10 commandments,””taking someone else’s property”
Equivalence-Doesn’t see cheating as stealing, taking
Boldness-Stealing as more overt deviation 1
Need-One may not have as much private need as another
Restorability-Better means can get out of punishment easier, can pay back.
Expect –Leader wouldn’t send cops 2
Add—Addition of labels; lied and stole.
Sanctions-Wants to believe there is some punishment for cheating as bad as for stealing
Good-It isn’t ever good to steal, etc.
Worked- “be nice and think of them, sympathize with them.” 3
Insurance
Service-Worse is taking it from the one performing a community service
Need-May force the store to close, may not be recoverable
Both-Both reduce to the same
Earned-He earned it; it shouldn’t be taken from him
Role-taking-You don’t want what you earn stolen
Categorical-Just shouldn’t steal, have no right to 4
Respect-Partner would lose respect
Unequal-Victim worked hard for money, thief if didn’t 5
Feel Worse-worse act is that which makes other feel worse in the situation
Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment Oriented. Concerned on a fixed set of unchangeable rules (we worry about what authorities will permit and punish); punishment is wrong. Key words: BAD, PUNISHED, COMMANDMENTS.
Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange. Everything is now relative, punishments are now a risk. Individuals are seeking favors. Fair Exchange Policy. Key words: UNFAIR, FAIR
Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships. Good Boy Orientation. Looks at motive of each party involved. Multi-dimentional aspects of a problem. Character traits are described. Key words: intentions were good
Stage 4: Maintaining social order. Emphasis on obeying laws, respecting authority, and performing one’s duties so social order is maintained. Not only do we say it is wrong, but we begin to explore reasons why. Key words: what happens if we do this..
Stage 5. Social Contracts & Indivudal rights. Stress on basic rights, change unfair laws, key words: right to live, social contract
Stage 6. Universal Principles. Looks at problems through all eyes. Conscience. Consistency

23. 8. Justice—Victim Reaction and Expectations
Type
7. Cheating & Good Self
8. Justice—Victim Reaction and Expectations
9. Law Making Perspective Worse for Country, etc.
Criminal-Become a criminal, get habit, etc., i.e., stealing
Worse person means punishment likelihood
Boldness-Lying as face-to-face deviation
Expect-Store owner will feel worse cause knows he won’t get it back.
Angry – Angry because cheated, lied to.
Harmful consequences re the individual
Restorability.
Habit –Go on to worse things, could led to killing, etc. 1
Lie-Suggests culprit can lie to get out of punishment
Friend-Lose your friends if cheat a friend.
Friend-A friend might not call in the cops
Others’ responsibility- Not so bad to cheat because it was his own free will. Role-Taking-If you had a store, wouldn’t like being stolen from 2
Friend-Worse to cheat and violate a friendship
Favor-Other person was doing a favor, was nice 3
Work-Worse is taking from one who had to work harder.
Work-Feel worse as above
Equal-Both out the same money
Stealing worse-worse for country is harmful consequences, is if everyone started doing it, getting away with it
Revenge-Everyone would revenge by stealing, etc. 4
Deceived-A deception rather than explicit lying
Taking advantage-of other’s sympathy, charity, trust
Blame self-Will blame himself for foolish trust, as making it worse to cheat
Cheating worse-Because undermines social relation more, couldn’t trust anyone. 5
Violating Trust
Disappointed motive-Thought he was doing god, could help others
Impersonality-Storekeeper expects such a loss, is oriented impersonally.

24. Responses Male. Age 5. DOB 6.21.05 Answers 1
Male. Age 5. DOB
Answers 1
Because he broke one of the commandments. 2
God hates you sometimes when you steal 3
Because promises are good 4
Yes. If you keep a promise you won't lose it. 5
If you don't steal from a store you won't go to jail. 6
You don't want somebody else to steal your jewelry. 7
Because it is good to do that 8
Because he wanted to be nice. Responsible.
Male. Age 8. DOB
Answers 1
Because you are breaking one of the commandments. Bob he was lying but he was asking the man for money. 2
Because you are breaking one of the commandments. Thou shall not lie. 3
Because it is the right thing to do. 4
If he lies and you don't him very well then he can come back and ask for more money. 5
You should try to keep God's commandments. You could go to hell. 6
You shouldn't steal from somebody because you need the money, but it isn't right to steal. 7
Because they shouldn't break the law. 8
He could have asked him why. I mean, he was being nice. Responsible. Because he lent him the money and that was being responsible.
Questions for responses

25. Responses Female. Age 11. DOB 10.10.99 Answers 1
Female. Age 11. DOB
Answers 1
Because not only did he tell the old man that he was sick and lied, but he wasn't using it for the purpose he told the old man. He didn't have the intention of paying the man back after he told him he would. 2
Because he told him that he was sick, but he wasn't, and that he would give him the money back. But Bob had no intention of giving the money back after he got over what he so-called being sick. 3
Because the person told the other person that he would do it. 4
Because the person was generous enough to lend him that, and because he didn't even know the person. 5
Because that would be breaking the law and commandment. And also it is just bad. 6
Because they were his/hers and it would be wrong to take anything you think you would need or want. 7
Because some laws can be bad, while others good 8
Because the old man did not know that Bob wasn't sick. He is like well, if he is sick and he promises to give me back the money then I will go ahead and give it to him. Responsible
Male. Age 13. DOB
Answers 1
Because you are lying and stealing as well 2
Because you told the man you were sick and you weren't and you asked him to loan you money just because you were in trouble. 3
Because it is pleasing to God to keep your promise. 4
You might not ever see them again, but if you don't keep your promise, it offends God and your friend. 5
Because it wrong and breaking one of the commandments 6
Well the money that Karl stole and Bob got from the old man is the old man's property and they shouldn't go around with money that isn't theirs. 7
Because it is the right thing to do 8
Well the old man is, I guess, responsible for the money that he gave to Bob. That's all.

26. Coding Form M – age 5 M – age 8 F – age 11 M – age 13 Q1 4 Q2 Q3 3 Q44 Q2 Q3 3 Q4 2 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8
Total
LI-0
LII-4 LI

27. Were We Right?
Children will fall into one of Kohlberg’s six stages of moral reasoning.
After being asked questions, the children will answer them consistently every time.
The reasoning of younger children will fall in the preconventional reasoning group, while the reasoning of older children will fall in the postconventional reasoning group.

28. Comparison Kolhberg Kristina & Amanda Age Stage Age Stage 1 1 5 2 8 32 8 3 11 4 14
Age
Stage 1 10 2 13 3 16 4

29. Yes and No.

30. Notes on Study
For the 13 year old, because of his age he should have scored higher, but because he had a learning difference, this has caused him to score lower.
Interesting that the female scored so high because according to the book Promoting Moral Growth, Kohlberg held that females always tend to score lower than males.
In most studies involving Kohlberg’s dilemmas, his Heinz dilemma is used. We assume this is because it is easier to identify with for children. Of all of Kohlberg’s dilemmas it is also the easiest to simplify, as well as the easiest to code.
Where does he say that?

31. Implications for Further Research
How would children answer differently if role-play was incorporated with the questions? Would the children understand the questions better and hence answer more elaborately? Would they have answered differently?
How would children with learning differences score differently compared to others of the same age?

32. Limitations Verbiage of the dilemma was to lofty for young children.
Confusion of questions.
Asked for clarification.
Simplification of dilemma necessary for full comprehension of story.
Got distracted easily.
Limited number of children.

33. Nature vs. Nurture Nature Nurture Amanda Piaget & Kohlberg Kristina
Rousseau
Locke
Crain, p “Piaget, however, did not think his stages are genetically determined. They simply represent increasingly comprehensive ways of thinking. Children are constantly exploring, manipulating, and trying to make sense of the environment, and in this process they actively construct new and more elaborate structures for dealing with it (Kohlberg, 1968).

34. Question
The third stage of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning discusses the
importance of ‘Good Interpersonal Relationships’. He defined this
as the following:
1. The awareness of shared emotions, agreement, and expectations.
The child attempts to gain approval, and to avoid disapproval and
rejection from others.
2. The acceptance of being in a relationship with someone else, and
understanding how this relationship effects you as a person. It is also the desire and need of feeling approval from someone else.
3. The awareness of shared emotions, agreement, and expectations.
It involves being a good friend to others with the intention of gaining
the approval and acceptance of others.
4. Being aware of the feelings and emotions of others. This is the first
step in forming relational bonds with another person.