1. Social and Emotional Development in Late Adulthood
Chapter 18

2. Erikson’s Theory: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
The final psychological conflict of Erikson’s theory is ego integrity vs. despair
Involves coming to terms with one’s life
Ego integrity
Adults who arrive at a sense of integrity feel whole and satisfied with their achievements, they have adapted to life’s triumphs and disappointments
The capacity to view one’s life in the larger context of all humanity contributes to the contentment that accompanies integrity
Despair
Despair occurs when elders feel they have made many wrong decisions, yet time is too short to find an alternative
The despairing person finds it hard to accept that death is near and is overwhelmed with bitterness, defeat, and hopelessness
According to Erikson, these attitudes are often expressed as anger and contempt for others, which disguise contempt for oneself

3. Other Theories of Psychosocial Development in Late Adulthood
As with Erikson’s stages of early and middle adulthood, other theorists have clarified and refined his vision of late adulthood
Specifying the tasks and the thought processes that contribute to a sense of ego integrity
All agree that optimal development involves greater integration and deepening of the personality

4. Peck’s Tasks of Ego Integrity and Joan Erikson’s Gerotranscendence
According to Robert Peck, attaining ego integrity involves 3 distinct tasks
Ego differentiation: for those who invested heavily in their careers, finding other ways to self-worth – through family, friendship, and community life
Body transcendence: overcoming physical limitations by emphasizing the compensating rewards of cognitive, emotional, and social powers
Ego transcendence: as contemporaries die, facing the reality of death constructively through efforts to make life more secure, meaningful, and gratifying for younger generations
Research suggests that body transcendence (focusing on psychological strengths) and ego transcendence (orienting toward a larger, more distant future) increase
Joan Erikson, suggested that these attainments actually represent development beyond ego integrity (which requires satisfaction with one’s past) to an additional psychosocial stage
Gerotranscendence – a cosmic and transcendent perspective directed forward and outward, beyond the self
Seen in heightened inner calm and contentment

5. Labouvie-Vief’s Emotional Experience
Elders improve in affect optimization – the ability to maximize positive emotions and dampen negative emotions
Which contributes to their remarkable resilience
Most older adults sustain a sense of optimism and good psychological well-being
About 30%-40% of elders also retain a considerable capacity for cognitive-emotional complexity – a combination related to especially effective emotional self-regulation
Older adults’ emotional perceptiveness helps them separate interpretations from objective aspects of situations
They readily use emotion-centered coping strategies (controlling distress internally) in negatively charged situations
In sum, a significant late-life psychosocial attainment is becoming expert at reflecting on one’s own feelings and regulating negative affect

6. Reminiscence
Reminiscence – telling stories about people and events from their past and reporting associated thoughts and feelings
Current theory and research indicate that reflecting on the past can be positive and adaptive
Life review – a form of reminiscence in which a person calls up past experiences, with the goal of achieving greater self-understanding
Reminiscence often occurs during times of life transition, such as retirement or widowhood
Helps elders sustain a sense of personal continuity
But, many elders who are high in self-acceptance and life satisfaction spend little time evaluating their pasts
Today, many elders in industrialized nations are largely present- and future-oriented, rather than focusing on the past and wishing to be young again
Experts believe a new phase of late adulthood has evolved
The third age – spans ages 65-79, is a time of new goal setting, personal fulfillment, and high life satisfaction

7. Stability and Change in Self-Concept and Personality
Longitudinal research reveals continuing stability of the “big five” personality traits from mid- to late-life
Yet the ingredients of ego integrity – wholeness, contentment, and image of the self as part of a larger world order – are reflected in several significant late-life changes in both self-concept and personality

8. Secure and Multifaceted Self-Concept
Elders have accumulated a lifetime of self-knowledge, leading to more secure and complex conceptions of themselves
Research indicates that the autobiographical selves of year olds emphasize coherence and consistency
Positive, multifaceted self-definitions are associated with psychological well-being
Hobbies, interests, social participation, family, health, and personality traits
Most elders continue to mention – and actively pursue – some hoped-for selves in the areas of physical health, personal characteristics, relationships, and social responsibility

9. Resilience: Agreeableness and Acceptance of Change
Open-ended interviews and personality tests reveal that elders gain in agreeableness and show greater acceptance of change
At the same time, elders show modest age-related dips in extraversion and openness to experience
Most older adults are resilient – especially if they were earlier in life
Older adults’ general cheerfulness strengthens their physiological resistance to stress, enabling them to conserve physical and mental resources needed for effective coping

10. Spirituality and Religiosity
Older adults may develop a more mature sense of spirituality
Older adults attach great value to religious beliefs and behaviors
72% of Americans age 65 and older say that religion is very important in their lives
At least in the U.S., elders tend to become more religious with age
Involvement in both organized and informal religious activities is especially high among low-SES ethnic minority elders
Involvement in both organized and informal religious activities is higher among women
Both organized and informal religious participation is associated with longer survival

11. Contextual Influences on Psychological Well-Being
Most adults adapt well to old age
Yet some feel dependent, incompetent, and worthless
Personal and situational factors often combine to affect psychological well-being
Identifying these contextual influences is vital for designing interventions that foster positive adjustment

12. Control vs. Dependency
2 predictable, complementary behavior patterns can be seen in observations of people interacting with older adults
The dependency-support script – dependent behaviors are attended to immediately
The independence-ignore script – independent behaviors are mostly ignored
Both scripts reinforce dependent behavior at the expense of independent behavior
Research shows that negative reactions to caregiving can result in persisting depression
When elders experience difficulty with daily activities, social contact is linked to a less positive everyday existence
This suggests that social interaction while assisting elders with physical care, household chores, and errands is often not rewarding but demeaning and unpleasant

13. Control vs. Dependency
Whether assistance from others undermines well-being is a function of many factors
Including the caregiver-elder relationship and the social context in which helping occurs
A stereotype of the elderly as passive and incompetent appears to be responsible for caregiver responses that promote excessive dependency in old age
Old people seem to be aware that people think they are feeble… and attribute their dependency to overresponsive social partners
Dependency in old age can be adaptive if it permits older people to conserve their strength by investing it in highly valued activities
Ex. Mowing the lawn for grandpa so he isn’t too tired to go play golf

14. Physical Health
Physical health is a powerful predictor of psychological well-being
Physical declines and chronic disease can lead to a sense of loss of personal control
Which is a major factor in mental health
More than actual physical limitations, perceived negative physical health predicts depressive symptoms
So how bad their health actually is, doesn’t matter as much as how bad they think their health is
The relation between physical and mental health can become a vicious cycle
With each intensifying the other, as one goes down so does the other
Elders generally do not get the mental health care they need-even in nursing homes, where mental health problems are widespread

15. Negative Life Changes
Negative life changes may evoke less stress and depression for older people than younger adults
Because elders have learned to cope with hard times and to accept loss
However, when negative changes pile up, they test the coping skills of older adults
In very old age, such changes are greater for women than for men
Older women are more likely to be widowed, have lower income, and suffer from more illness

16. Social Support
In late adulthood, social support continues to reduce stress, thereby promoting physical health and psychological well-being
However, because many older adults place a high value on independence, they do not want a great deal of support from people close to them unless they can reciprocate
Formal support as a complement to informal assistance spare elders from feeling overly dependent in their close relationships
Ethnic minority elders do not readily accept formal assistance but are more willing to do so when helpers are connected to a familiar neighborhood organization, especially church
For social support to promote well-being, elders need to assume personal control of it
Besides tangible assistance, elders benefit from social support that offers affection, affirmation of their self-worth, and sense of belonging

17. A Changing Social World
Extraverts continue to interact with a wider range of people than to introverts and people with poor social skills in old age
Nevertheless, studies reveal that size of social networks and, therefore, amount of social interaction decline for virtually everyone
This finding presents a curious paradox:
If social interaction and social support are essential for mental health, how is it possible for elders to interact less yet be generally satisfied with life and less depressed than younger adults

18. Social Theories Of Aging
Social theories of aging offer explanations for changes in elders social activity
Two older perspectives, disengagement theory and activity theory interpret declines in social interaction in opposite ways
More recent approaches, continuity theory and socioemotional selectivity theory, account for a wider range of feelings

19. Social Theories Of Aging: Disengagement Theory
According to disengagement theory, mutual withdrawal between elders and society takes place in anticipation of death
Older people decrease their activity levels and interact less frequently
Becoming more preoccupied with their inner lives
At the same time, society frees elders from employment and family responsibilities
The result is viewed as beneficial for both sides
Elders are granted a life of tranquility and once they disengage, their deaths are less disruptive to society
However, not everyone disengages, and even when old people disengage, it may not be their preference
Rather it may be due to a failure of the social world to provide opportunities for engagement

20. Social Theories Of Aging: Activity Theory
Activity theory states that social barriers to engagement, not the desires of elders, cause declining rates of interaction
When older people lose certain roles (retirement or death of a spouse), they try to find others in an effort to stay about as active and busy as they were in middle age
In this view, elders’ life satisfaction depends on conditions that permit them to remain engaged in roles and relationships
Problems with this theory
Activity theory fails to acknowledge any psychological change in old age
Many studies show that merely offering elders opportunities for social contact does not lead to greater social activity
When health status is controlled, elders who have larger social networks and engage in more activities are not necessarily happier
Apparently, quality over quantity applies here

21. Social Theories Of Aging: Continuity Theory
According to continuity theory, most aging adults strive to maintain a personal system – an identity and a set of personality dispositions, skills, and roles – that promotes life satisfaction by ensuring consistency between their past and anticipated future
Participation in familiar activities with familiar people helps preserve physical and cognitive functioning and affirms identity

22. Social Theories Of Aging: Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Socioemotional selectivity theory asserts that social interaction does not decline suddenly in late age
Rather, it extends lifelong selection processes
Physical and psychological aspects of aging lead to changes in the functions of social interaction
Elders emphasize the emotion-regulating function of interaction (approaching those who evoke positive feelings and avoiding those who evoke negative feelings)
And deemphasize other functions, such as information gathering (being friends with someone because they offer information you don’t have)
In collectivist cultures, where people value an interdependent self, social relationships tend to not become restricted

23. Social Contexts of Aging: Communities, Neighborhoods, and Housing
The physical and social contexts in which elders live affect their social experiences and, consequently, their development and adjustment
Communities, neighborhoods, and housing arrangements vary in the extent to which they enable aging residents to satisfy their social needs

24. Social Contexts: Communities and Neighborhoods
Suburban elders have higher incomes and report better health than inner-city elders do
Inner-city elders are better off in terms of transportation and proximity to social services
And are not as disadvantaged in health, income, and availability of services as those who live in small towns and rural areas
Small-town and rural elderly compensate for distance from family and social services by interacting more with neighbors and friends

25. Social Contexts: Victimization and Fear of Crime
Media attention has led to a widely held belief that crime against the elderly is common
Although older adults are less often targets of crime than other age groups
However, I will say that this statistic came out before the big phone scam of last year…
Fear of crime restricts activities and undermines morale among frail elders living alone and in inner-city areas
Ex. My grandparents are still trying to find a way to come visit me that doesn’t involve driving within 20 miles of Detroit or getting on an airplane…

26. Social Contexts: Housing Arrangements
Elders housing preferences reflect a strong desire for aging in place – remaining in a familiar setting where they have control over their everyday life
Ordinary homes
For the majority of elders, who are not physically impaired, staying in their own homes affords the greatest possible personal control
More elders in Western countries live on their own today than ever before, as a result of improved health and economic well-being
Older adults of Southern, Central, and Eastern European descent, as well as African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans, more often live with extended families
During the past half-century, the number of unmarried, divorced, and widowed American elders living alone has risen dramatically
Over 40% of them are poverty stricken

27. Social Contexts: Housing Arrangements
Residential Communities
Housing developments for the aged differ from ordinary homes in that they have been modified to suit elders’ capacities
For elders who need more help with everyday tasks, assisted living arrangements are available
Congregate housing – an increasingly popular long-term care option – provides a variety of support services, including meals in a common dining room, along with watchful oversight of residents with physical and mental disabilities
Life-care communities offer a range of options, from independent or congregate housing to full nursing home care, guaranteeing that elders’ changing needs will be met in one place as they age
Studies of diverse residential communities for the aged reveal that they can have positive effects on physical and mental health
No U.S. federal regulations govern assisted-living facilities
But physical designs and support services that enable aging in place are vital for elders’ well-being

28. Social Contexts: Housing Arrangements
Nursing Homes
The 5% of Americans age 65 and older who live in nursing homes experience the most extreme restriction of autonomy and social integration
Potential social partners are abundant in nursing homes, but interaction is low
More homelike nursing homes could do much to increase residents’ sense of security and control
The new Green House model offers aging-in-place features that ensure late-life well-being, such as physical and emotional comfort and meaningful relationships

29. Relationships in Late Adulthood
The social convoy is an influential model of changes in our social networks as we move through life
Ships in the inner circle represent people’s closest relationships (spouse, best friend, parent, child, etc.)
Those less close but still important travel on the outside
With age, ships exchange places in the convoy, and some drift off while others join the procession
As long as the convoy continues to exist, you adapt positively