1. Chapter 7: Schedules and Theories of Reinforcement
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

2. Schedule of Reinforcement
indicates what exactly has to be done for the reinforcer to be delivered.
Example:
How many lever presses are required for the food pellet to be presented?
Different response requirements can have dramatically different effects on behavior.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

3. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule (CRF)
Each specified response is reinforced.
Example:
Each time a rat presses the lever, it obtains a food pellet.
It is very useful when a behavior is first being shaped or strengthened.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

4. Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule
Only some responses are reinforced.
Example:
Only some of the rat’s lever presses result in a food pellet.
This obviously characterizes much of everyday life.
Examples:
Not all concerts we attend are enjoyable.
Not every person we invite out on a date accepts.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

5. Four Basic Intermittent Schedules
fixed ratio
variable ratio
fixed interval
variable interval
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

6. Fixed Ratio Schedules
Reinforcement is contingent upon a fixed, predictable number of responses.
Examples:
On a fixed ratio 5 schedule (FR 5), a rat has to press the lever 5 times to obtain food.
On a FR 50 schedule, a rat has to press the lever 50 times to obtain food.
An FR 1 schedule is the same as a CRF schedule.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

7. Responses to FR Schedules
Usually a high rate of response with a short postreinforcement pause.
Example:
On an FR 25 schedule, a rat rapidly emits 25 lever presses, munches down the food pellet it receives, and then snoops around before emitting more lever presses.
A postreinforcement pause is a short pause following the attainment of each reinforcer.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

8. Responses to FR Schedules, continued
Higher ratio requirements produce longer postreinforcement pauses.
Example:
You will take a longer break after completing a long assignment than after completing a short one.
There may be little or no pausing with a FR1 or FR2 schedule because the reinforcer is so close.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

9. “Stretching the Ratio”
moving from a low ratio requirement (a dense schedule) to a high ratio requirement (a lean schedule).
It should be done gradually to avoid ratio strain or burnout.
Example:
A rapid increase in your workload will more easily cause you to burn out than a gradual increase in your workload.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

10. Variable Ratio Schedules
Reinforcement is contingent upon a varying, unpredictable number of responses.
Example:
On a variable ratio 5 (VR 5) schedule, a rat has to emit an average of 5 lever presses for each food pellet.
They generally produce a high and steady rate of response with little or no postreinforcement pause.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

11. Real Examples of VR Schedules
Only some of a cheetah’s attempts at chasing down prey are successful.
Only some acts of politeness receive an acknowledgment.
Only some CDs that we buy are enjoyable.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

12. VR Schedules & Maladaptive Behaviors
VR schedules help account for the persistence of certain maladaptive behaviors.
Example:
Gambling - The unpredictable nature of gambling results in a very high rate of behavior.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

13. VR Schedules & Abusive Relationships
At the start, the couple typically provide each other with an enormous amount of positive reinforcement.
As the relationship progresses, one person provides reinforcement on an intermittent basis, while the other person works hard to obtain that reinforcement.
This happens gradually and both usually are unaware of the change.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

14. Fixed Interval Schedules
Reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a fixed, predictable period of time.
Example:
On a fixed interval 30-second (FI 30-sec) schedule, the first lever press after a 30-second interval has elapsed results in a food pellet.
Trying to phone a friend who is due to arrive home in exactly 30 minutes will be effective only after the 30 minutes have elapsed.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

15. Responses to FI Schedules
Responses consist of a postreinforcement pause followed by a gradually increasing rate of response as the interval draws to a close.
Example:
A rat on an FI 30-sec schedule will emit no lever presses at the start of the 30-second interval, but the rate of responses will gradually increase as the 30 ends.
Your study habits this term were probably very weak at the beginning of the semester and they will increase as the semester draws to a close.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

16. Variable Interval Schedules
Reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a varying, unpredictable period of time.
Example:
On a variable interval 30-second (VI 30-sec) schedule, the first lever press after an average interval of 30 seconds will result in a food.
Looking down the street for the bus will be reinforced after a varying, unpredictable period of time.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

17. Responses to VI Schedules
They produce a moderate, steady rate of response with little or no postreinforcement pause.
Example:
If you need to contact a friend who always arrives home between 6:00 p.m. and 6:30 p.m., a good strategy would be to phone every few minutes throughout that time period.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

18. Responses to the Four Basic Intermittent Schedules
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

19. Rate Schedules are entirely “response contingent”.
They depend entirely on the number of responses emitted.
Thus, they result in high rates of response.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

20. Fixed Schedules produce postreinforcement pauses.
Attaining one reinforcer means that the next reinforcer is necessarily some distance away.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

21. Duration Schedules
reinforcement is contingent on performing a behavior continuously throughout a period of time.
Fixed duration (FD) schedule means the behavior must be performed continuously for a fixed, predictable period of time.
Example: FD 60-sec schedule for lever pressing
Variable duration ( VD) schedule means the behavior must be performed continuously for a varying, unpredictable period of time.
Example: VD 60-sec schedule for lever pressing
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

22. Duration Schedules & Human Behavior
Duration schedules are sometimes useful in modifying certain human behaviors.
However, in some ways they are rather imprecise.
What constitutes “continuous performance of behavior”?
Also, reinforcing the mere performance of an activity with no regard to level of performance can undermine a person’s intrinsic interest in that activity.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

23. Response-Rate Schedules
Reinforcement is directly contingent upon the organism’s rate of response.
These are differential reinforcement schedules.
Differential reinforcement means simply that one type of response is reinforced while another is not.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

24. Differential Reinforcement of High Rates (DRH)
Reinforcement is provided for a high rate of response and not for a low rate.
Example:
Food pellets are provided when the rat presses the lever several times in a short period of time.
Winning a running or swimming is contingent on a fast rate of response.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

25. Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates (DRL)
Reinforcement is provided for responding at a slow rate.
Example:
A rat might receive a food pellet only if it waits at least 10 seconds between lever presses.
Preparing your homework slowly and carefully will result in a better grade.
Responses that occur during the interval have an adverse effect in that they prevent the reinforcement from occurring.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

26. Differential Reinforcement of Paced Responding (DRP)
Reinforcement is provided for responding neither too fast nor too slow.
Example:
Musical activities require that the relevant actions be performed at a specific pace.
Long distant runners have to remain on a certain pace to win.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

27. Noncontingent Schedules
The reinforcer is delivered independently of any response.
A response is not required for the reinforcer to be obtained.
There are two-types of response-independent schedules: fixed time and variable time.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

28. Fixed Time (FT) Schedule
The reinforcer is delivered following a fixed, predictable period of time, regardless of the organism’s behavior.
Example:
On a fixed time 30-second (FT 30-sec) schedule, a pigeon receives food every 30 seconds regardless of its behavior.
People receive Christmas gifts each year regardless of their behavior on an FT 1-year schedule.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

29. Variable Time (VT) Schedule
The reinforcer is delivered following a varying, unpredictable period of time, regardless of the organism’s behavior.
Example:
A pigeon receives food after an average interval of 30 seconds (VT 30-sec schedule).
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

30. Superstitious Behavior
Noncontingent reinforcement may account for some forms of superstitious behavior.
Behaviors may be accidentally reinforced by the coincidental presentation of reinforcments.
Example:
Students were placed in a booth that contained three levers and a counter and were told to earn as many points as possible.
Most students developed at least temporary patterns of superstitious lever pulling.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

31. Superstitious Behaviors, continued
This is also true of athletes and gamblers.
Unusual events that precede a fine performance may be quickly identified and then deliberately reproduced in the hopes of reproducing that performance.
Superstitious behavior can be seen as an attempt to make an unpredictable situation more predictable.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

32. The Downside of Noncontingent Schedules
When a noncontingent schedule is superimposed on a response-contingent schedule, the level of response on the respondent schedule will decrease.
Example:
The work schedules of people on welfare
Pigeons on a noncontingent and a response-contingent schedule
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

33. The Upside of Noncontingent Schedules
Noncontingent schedules can be an effective means of reducing the frequency of maladaptive behaviors.
Example:
Giving children who act out a sufficient amount of attention on a noncontingent basis may reduce their maladaptive behavior.
Carl Rogers’ unconditional positive regard can be seen as a form of noncontingent social reinforcement, which can indeed have beneficial effects.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

34. Complex Schedules of Reinforcement
a combination of two or more simple schedules.
They include:
Conjunctive Schedules
Adjusting Schedules
Chained Schedules
Multiple Schedules
Concurrent Schedules
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

35. Conjunctive Schedule
type of complex schedule in which the requirements of two or more simple schedules must be met before a reinforcer is delivered.
Example:
A FI 2-minute FR 100 schedule for lever pressing means reinforcement is contingent upon completing 100 lever presses and completing at least one lever press following a 2-minute interval.
Earning wages at your job is another example.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

36. Adjusting Schedule
The response requirement changes as a function of the organism’s performance while responding for the previous reinforcer.
Example:
A FR 100 schedule may increase to 110 responses (FR 110) if the rat performs well.
Shaping usually works on an adjusting schedule where gradually more is required to receive the reinforcer.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

37. Chained Schedule
sequence of two or more simple schedules, each of which has its own SD and the last of which results in a terminal reinforcer.
Example:
A pigeon is presented with a VR 20 schedule on a green key, followed by an FI 10-sec schedule on a red key, which then leads to the terminal reinforcer of food.
VR 20 FI 10-sec
Green key: Peck → Red key: Peck → Food
SD R SR/SD R SR
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

38. Responses to a Chained Schedule
The earlier links of the chain are associated with weaker responding.
The terminal reinforcer is more immediate and hence more influential.
The goal gradient effect is an increase in the strength and/or efficiency of responding as one draws near to the goal.
Example:
Rats tend to run faster and make fewer wrong turns running through a maze as they near the goal box.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

39. Backward Chaining
is training the final link first and the initial link last, in order to make the chain more effective.
The sight of each stimulus is both a secondary reinforcer for the previous behavior and a discriminative stimulus for the next behavior.
In this manner, very long chains of behavior can be established.
Shaping and chaining are thus the basic means by which circus and marine animals are trained.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

40. Chaining & Human Behavior
Most human endeavors involve response chains, some of which are very long.
For humans, response chains are often established through instructions.
Example:
Reading the text
Completing this course
It is best to chart your progress because terminal reinforcers are often extremely distant, so behavior is easily disrupted during the early part of the chain.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

41. Theories of Reinforcement
The Drive Reduction Theory
The Premack Principle
The Response Deprivation Hypothesis
The Behavioral Bliss Point Approach
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

42. Drive Reduction Theory
an event is reinforcing to the extent that it is associated with a reduction in some type of physiological drive.
Example:
Food deprivation produces a “hunger drive,” which then propels the animal to behave in order to receive food.
Most theorists no longer believe that drive reduction theory can offer a comprehensive account of reinforcement, and it has now been largely abandoned.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

43. Hull’s View
According to Hull, all reinforcers are associated, either directly or indirectly, with some type of drive reduction.
However, not all behaviors appear associated with a reduction in a physiological drive.
Example:
A chimpanzee will press a button so that it can obtain a peek into another room.
It seems as though the motivation for some behaviors exists more in the reinforcing stimulus than in some type of internal state.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

44. Incentive Motivation
motivation that is derived from some property of the reinforcer, as opposed to an internal drive state.
Examples:
Playing a video game for the fun of it
Even events that seem to be clearly associated with drive reduction can be strongly affected by incentive factors.
Example:
Eating at a restaurant that serves spicy food
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

45. The Premack Principle
states that a high-probability behavior can be used to reinforce a low-probability behavior.
The process of reinforcement can be conceptualized as a sequence of two behaviors:
the behavior that is being reinforced, followed by
the behavior that is the reinforcer.
Example:
Lever pressing is reinforced by eating food.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

46. The Premack Principle, continued
By focusing on the relative probabilities of behaviors, the Premack principle allows us to quickly identify potential reinforcers in the real world.
Example:
Kaily spends only a few minutes each morning doing chores, but at least an hour reading comic books.
The opportunity to read comic books can be used to reinforce doing chores.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

47. Response Deprivation Hypothesis
states that a behavior can serve as a reinforcer when
access to the behavior is restricted and
its frequency thereby falls below its preferred level of occurrence.
The preferred level is its baseline level of occurrence when the animal can freely engage in that activity.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

48. Response Deprivation Hypothesis Example
A rat typically runs for 1 hour a day whenever it has free access to a running wheel.
If the rat is then allowed free access to the wheel for only 15 minutes per day, it will be unable to reach this preferred level .
The rat will be in a state of deprivation with regard to running.
The rat will now be willing to work to obtain additional time on the wheel.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

49. Contingencies of Reinforcement
Contingencies of reinforcement are effective to the extent that they create a condition in which the organism is confronted with the possibility of a certain response falling below its baseline level.
Example:
Kaily, who enjoys reading comic books each day, is presented with a contingency in which she has to do her chores before reading.
Reading comic books is a reinforcer because the contingency pushes free comic book reading to below its preferred rate of occurrence.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

50. Behavioral Bliss Point Approach
An organism with free access to alternative activities will distribute its behavior in such a way as to maximize overall reinforcement.
Example:
A rat that can freely choose between running in a wheel and exploring a maze might spend 1 hour per day running in the wheel and 2 hours exploring the maze.
The optimal distribution of behavior is based on the notion that each activity is freely available.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

51. Behavioral Bliss Point Approach, continued
What will happen when the rat can not reach its bliss point because a contingency won’t allow it?
It will compromise by distributing its activities in such a way as to draw as near as possible to its behavioral bliss point.
Likewise most of us are forced to spend several more hours working and several fewer hours enjoying ourselves than we would if we were free to do whatever we wanted.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

52. Summary
A schedule of reinforcement is the response requirement that must be met to obtain a reinforcer.
Different types of schedules produce different schedule effects.
Continuous vs. Intermittent schedules
The basic schedules include FR, VR, FI, and VI.
Fixed vs. Variable
Ratio vs. Interval
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

53. Summary, continued Duration Schedules
Response-rate schedules, including DRH, DRL, and DRP
Noncontingent Schedules
A complex schedule consists of two or more simple schedules.
Complex schedules include conjunctive schedules, adjusting schedules, and chained schedules.
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

54. Summary, continued The Drive Reduction Theory The Premack Principle
The Response Deprivation Hypothesis
The Behavioral Bliss Point Approach
Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e
by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey
Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.