1. C OMMAS, SEMI - COLONS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES

2. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave. The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand. Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.

3. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words) While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door. Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class. If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor. When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway. Having finished the test, he left the room. To get a seat, you'd better come early. After the test but before lunch, I went jogging. The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe

4. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause. * If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence make sense? If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense? If "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the should be set off with commas. Clause : That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet. Phrase : This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland. Word : I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.

5. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clause s following a verb expressing mental action are always essential The book that I borrowed from you is excellent. She believes that she will be able to earn an A. Students who cheat only harm themselves. The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.

6. C OMMA A BUSE Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb. INCORRECT: An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult. INCORRECT: The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions.

7. A SSIGNMENT : Look at the rule you just wrote down. Write a paragraph using these rules as many times as you can. HIGHLIGHT the comma and conjunction. TOPIC: Describe the worst day you have ever had.

8. S EMI -C OLONS Semicolon Used to Join Two Complete Sentences Semicolon Used with Words Like 'however" and Phrases Like "for example" Example 1: Mary ate dinner; the dinner tasted exquisite. Example 2: By age 15, Ivan had cooked 300 meals; by age 20, he had cooked twice that amount. Example 1: Mary ate dinner; however, she was hungry an hour later. Example 2: Mary's dinner was made with several spices; for example, the chicken was sprinkled with Cayenne pepper.

9. A SSIGNMENT : Look at the rule you just wrote down. Write a paragraph using these rules as many times as you can. HIGHLIGHT the semi-colon and transition words used. TOPIC: Something this school really needs is…

10. P HRASES AND CLAUSES A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verbsubjectverb Independent: A clause that can stand by itself and still make sense Independent clauses are sometimes called essential or restrictive clauses Dependent: A clause that cannot stand by itself. (frament) Clause

11. E XAMPLES The internet on the TV keeps stopping. The two best shows on TV are NCIS and NCIS LA. While she went home Even though she knows the truth IndependentDependent

12. I NDEPENDENT CLAUSES CAN BE CONNECTED IN A VARIETY OF WAYS By a comma and little conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and sometimes so). conjunction By a semicolon, by itselfsemicolon By a semicolon accompanied by a conjunctive adverb (such as however, moreover, nevertheless, as a result, consequently, etc.). conjunctive adverb She was tired, yet she decided to go swimming with her friends Ethan likes milk; Emily likes water. Dayana wants to get married on Saturday; therefore, I am planning her wedding.

13. A SSIGNMENT : Look at the rules you just wrote down. Write a paragraph using the following formulas: 2 -independent clauses ; independent clauses 2 –dependent clauses, independent clauses 2-independent clauses, conjunction, independent clauses 3-independent clauses ; conjunction, independent clause HIGHLIGHT independent clauses in one color and the dependent clauses in a different color TOPIC: Something this school really needs is…

14. T YPES OF C LAUSES ADVERB CLAUSES tend to tell us something about the sentence’s main verb: when, why, under what conditions. Every adverb clause begins with a subordinate conjunction. Adverb clauses must have a subject and a verb. If the sentence begins with an adverb clause, use a comma after it. Some examples of subordinate conjunctions would be when, since, before, although, until… Adverb clauses modify the main verb in the sentence, adjectives and other adverbs. EX: After Jubal Early invaded the outskirts of Washington, Congressional leaders took the southern threat more seriously

15. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES MODIFY NOUNS OR PRONOUNS IN THE REST OF THE SENTENCE.. The Internet, which started out as a means for military and academic types to share documents, has become a household necessity. Tim Berners-Lee, who developed the World Wide Web, could never have foreseen the popularity of his invention

16. P HRASES One way to define a phrase is to say it is a group of words that “belong together” in terms of meaning but do not have both a subject and a verb. Phrase = a group of words that acts like one word EX: the gym at the end of the street It acts like a noun  The gym at the end of the street is new.

17. P HRASES ARE BE CLASSIFIED BY THE TYPE OF HEAD THEY TAKE : Prepositional phrase with a preposition as head (e.g. in love, over the rainbow ) Prepositional phrasepreposition Noun phrase with a noun as head Noun phrasenoun (e.g. the black cat, a cat on the mat ) Verb phrase with a verb as head (e.g. eat cheese, jump up and down ) Verb phraseverb Adjectival phrase with an adjective as head (e.g. full of toys )adjective

18. A BSOLUTE P HRASES Usually (but not always), an absolute phrase is a group of words consisting of a noun or pronoun and a participle as well as any related modifiers. Absolute phrases do not directly connect to or modify any specific word in the rest of the sentence; instead, they modify the entire sentence, adding information. They are always treated as parenthetical elements and are set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma or a pair of commas (sometimes by a dash or pair of dashes). Absolute phrases contain a subject (which is often modified by a participle), but not a true verb.

19. A BSOLUTE P HRASES The absolute phrase may appear at the end of a sentence: The hunters rested for a moment in front of the shack, breaths gathering in the frosty air. The absolute phrase may also appear at the beginning of the sentence: Breaths gathering in the frosty air, the hunters rested for a moment in front of the shack. And occasionally an absolute phrase is positioned between the subject and verb: * The hunters, breaths gathering in the frosty air, rested for a moment in front of the shack

20. K EITH P OLETTE ’ S E LEVEN W AYS TO B EGIN A S ENTENCE Noun Rats peered from garbage cans. Article + Noun The rats peered from garbage cans. Adjective. + Noun Greedy rats peered from garbage cans. Pronoun They peered from garbage cans. Adverb Cautiously, rats peered from garbage cans. Absolute Phrases Eyes wide, ears twitching, rats peered from garbage cans Participle Phrases Munching on stale cheese, rats peered from garbage cans. Prepositional Phrases Beneath the glow of a full moon, rats peered from garbage cans. Infinitive Phrases To watch for prowling cats, rats peered from garbage cans. Adverbial Clause As the half moon arose in the dingy sky like a hunk of rancid cheese, rats peered from garbage cans. Implied Adjective Clause Suspicious of their surroundings, rats peered from garbage cans.