1. 1. Introduction 2. Methods for I/O Operations 3. Buses 4. Liquid Crystal Displays 5. Other Types of Displays 6. Graphics Adapters 7. Optical Discs 01/08/20151Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

2. Classification of Optical Discs Compact Disc Physical Medium Data Organization and Encoding CD-ROM Drive Compact Disc Types DVD Blu-ray Discs 01/08/20152Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

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4. Optical discs: R/O (Read/Only): recorded by manufacturer R/W (Read/Write): recorded by the user Video discs: CAV (Constant Angular Velocity) CLV (Constant Linear Velocity) Compact discs: CD-DA (Compact Disc-Digital Audio) CD-3 01/08/20154Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

5. CD+G (CD+Graphics) CD+MIDI (CD+Musical Instruments Digital Interface) CD ‑ I Ready (CD ‑ Interactive Ready) CD EXTRA: multi-session mixed disc; it contains an audio part and a data part CD TEXT: extension of the CD-DA format for recording the texts of songs CD-I (CD-Interactive): it may contain video images, graphics, animation, sound, text, data 01/08/20155Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

6. CD ‑ ROM XA (CD ‑ ROM Extended Architecture): extension of the CD-ROM format with characteristics defined for the CD-I format Photo CD: implementation of the CD-ROM/XA format for storing photographs Video CD: format for recording compressed video and audio data SVCD (Super Video CD): improved video and audio quality compared to Video CD format SACD (Super Audio CD) 01/08/20156Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

7. DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) BD (Blu-ray Disc) BD-ROM AV (BD-ROM Audio Visual) Writeable discs: CD ‑ R (CD ‑ Recordable) DVD ‑ R (DVD-Recordable) DVD+R (DVD+Recordable) BD-R (BD-Recordable) BD-R AV (BD-Recordable Audio Visual) 01/08/20157Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

8. Rewriteable discs: CD ‑ MO (CD ‑ Magneto Optical) CD ‑ RW (CD-Read/Write) DVD-RW (DVD-Read/Write) DVD+RW (DVD+Read/Write) DVD-RAM BD-RE (BD-Rewritable) BD-RE AV (BD-Rewritable Audio Visual) 01/08/20158Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

9. Classification of Optical Discs Compact Disc Physical Medium Data Organization and Encoding CD-ROM Drive Compact Disc Types DVD Blu-ray Discs 01/08/20159Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

10. Diameter: 12 cm; thickness: ~1.2 mm Data are recorded as cavities called pits placed between surfaces called lands Different reflection degree for pits and lands 01/08/2015 Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1) 10

11. Data are recorded on a single spiral Distance between two consecutive tracks: 1.6  m Each bit of information requires ~300 nm 01/08/2015 Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1) 11

12. Classification of Optical Discs Compact Disc Physical Medium Data Organization and Encoding CD-ROM Drive Compact Disc Types DVD Blu-ray Discs 01/08/201512Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

13. Data Organization and Encoding Data Organization Levels Data Recording and Encoding First Level of Error Correction Sector Format Second Level of Error Correction Sub-Channels 01/08/201513Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

14. At the lowest level, data are recorded as pits and lands Data are encoded  high recording density; reliable error recovery At the next level, data are organized into sectors and tracks The High Sierra specifications (ISO 9660 standard) define a file system Extensions: Rock Ridge, HFS, Joliet 01/08/201514Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

15. Data Organization and Encoding Data Organization Levels Data Recording and Encoding First Level of Error Correction Sector Format Second Level of Error Correction Sub-Channels 01/08/201515Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

16. The bits are recorded on the medium using the RLL (Run Length Limited) method Each pit  land transition: bit of 1 No transition: bit of 0 Encoding by which a data byte is represented through 14 channel bits  Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation (EFM) 3 merging bits are inserted Data are broken up into blocks called frames 01/08/201516Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

17. Frame structure: Synchronization header Control byte 2  12 data bytes 2  4 bytes for error detection and correction (CIRC - Cross Interleaved Reed ‑ Solomon Code) 01/08/201517Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1) SynchronizationControlData (L)CIRCData (R)CIRC 27 bits1 byte12 bytes4 bytes12 bytes4 bytes

18. Data Organization and Encoding Data Organization Levels Data Recording and Encoding First Level of Error Correction Sector Format Second Level of Error Correction Sub-Channels 01/08/201518Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

19. The error detection and correction system used within the frames: CIRC (Cross Interleaved Reed ‑ Solomon Code) Integrated at hardware level into the disc drives Two components: The “Cross interleave” component breaks up the long errors into several short errors The “Reed ‑ Solomon” component provides the error correction 01/08/201519Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

20. Data Organization and Encoding Data Organization Levels Data Recording and Encoding First Level of Error Correction Sector Format Second Level of Error Correction Sub-Channels 01/08/201520Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

21. Sector = 98 frames 98 control bytes 24  98 = 2352 data bytes 8  98 = 784 error detection and correction bytes Format similar to that of audio discs For direct access to each sector, synchronization bytes and a header containing the sector address are used 01/08/201521Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

22. 12 synchronization bytes 00 FF.. FF 00 The header contains 4 fields (x1 byte) M field of absolute address (Minute), 0..99 S field of absolute address (Second), 00..59 F field of absolute address (Frame), 00..74 Data mode field Two modes of organization: Mode 1, Mode 2 01/08/201522Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

23. Mode 1 Provided for data tracks (programs) 2048 bytes of data The Error Detection Code (EDC) The Error Correction Code (ECC) 01/08/201523Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1) SynchronizationHeaderDataEDC0ECC 12 bytes4 bytes2048 bytes4 bytes8 bytes276 bytes

24. Mode 2 Provided for audio and video applications The EDC, ECC fields contain data A sector contains 2048+288 = 2336 bytes Mixed mode discs (ISO/IEC 10149) First track: data (mode 1) Other tracks: audio/video information (mode 2) 01/08/201524Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1) SynchronizationHeaderData 12 bytes4 bytes2336 bytes

25. Data Organization and Encoding Data Organization Levels Data Recording and Encoding First Level of Error Correction Sector Format Second Level of Error Correction Sub-Channels 01/08/201525Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

26. The error rate ensured by the CIRC method: 10 -9  insufficient for data discs For data discs a second level of error detection and correction is provided 4 bytes for error detection (EDC) 276 bytes for error correction (ECC) L ‑ EC (Layered Error Correction), rate of 10 -12 The error detection code: Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) The error correction code: Reed-Solomon 01/08/201526Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

27. Data Organization and Encoding Data Organization Levels Data Recording and Encoding First Level of Error Correction Sector Format Second Level of Error Correction Sub-Channels 01/08/201527Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

28. Each bit of a control byte is identified by a letter: P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W Bits that are assigned the same letter make a sub-channel The bits that occupy the first position in all the 98 control bytes make sub-channel P The bits in the second position: sub-channel Q Sub-channel Q in the lead-in area keeps the table of contents (TOC) The last 6 bits: sub-channel R ‑ W 01/08/201528Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

29. Classification of Optical Discs Compact Disc Physical Medium Data Organization and Encoding CD-ROM Drive Compact Disc Types DVD Blu-ray Discs 01/08/201529Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

30. The laser diode emits an infrared beam The beam is focused on the disc surface The beam is positioned with a servomechanism Part of the beam is reflected back and directed to a photodiode → electric signal 01/08/201530Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

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32. Positioning mechanism Moves the mirror and the lens system The optical assembly moves on a set of rails The precise positioning onto a track is achieved with a microcontroller and an electronic servo system The servo system measures the signal level and adjusts the position of the read assembly 01/08/201532Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

33. Common systems use three beams: The beam generated by the laser diode is split into three beams with a polarized prism The intensity of the side beams is measured  signal for correcting the beam position Compensating vertical movement: The photodiode is split into 4 quadrants On the disc’s deviation, the spot becomes elliptical  the signals generated by the quadrants will differ The objective lens is moved accordingly 01/08/201533Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

34. Rated speed (“X” speed) Refers to the spin speed of the disc It is an indicator of the maximum theoretical transfer rate A single-speed (1X) drive has the same spin speed as a standard audio CD drive Audio drive: 75 sectors/s  75  2336 = 175,200 B/s = 171.09 KB/s 1X CD-ROM drive: 75  2048 = 153,600 B/s = 150 KB/s 01/08/201534Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

35. CLV (Constant Linear Velocity) The spin speed is variable: higher towards the disc centre The transfer rate is constant Method used for audio CD drives and early generations of CD-ROM drives (1X..12X) The first audio CD drives were designed to transfer the same amount of data in each second 01/08/201535Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

36. CAV (Constant Angular Velocity) The spin speed is constant The transfer rate is variable Advantage: there is no need to change the spin speed Disadvantage: the transfer rate is reduced towards the center of the disc Method used for CD-ROM drives with a spin speed of over 12X 01/08/201536Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

37. TrueX technology Allows to increase the performance of CD-ROM drives Several laser beams are used to scan simultaneously multiple tracks ASIC that contains: signal processor, servo controller, decoder, error correction system, ATAPI interface External chip: SCSI, USB, or IEEE 1394 interface 01/08/201537Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

38. The laser beam is split with a diffraction grating The beams pass through the unidirectional mirror Focusing: attained with the central beam Higher transfer rates at lower revolution speeds  reducing vibrations 01/08/201538Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

39. Classification of Optical Discs Compact Disc Physical Medium Data Organization and Encoding CD-ROM Drive Compact Disc Types DVD Blu-ray Discs 01/08/201539Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

40. Compact Disc Types CD-DA CD-DA Variants SACD CD-R CD-RW 01/08/201540Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

41. CD-DA (Compact Disc Digital Audio) Early generation discs had a duration of 60 minutes Later discs: 74 or 80 minutes The standard: “Red Book” document Most of the later standards are based on the “Red Book” specifications with regard to the media and read procedure 01/08/201541Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

42. The audio signal (analog) is sampled Sampling rate: 44.1 KHz The Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is used The amplitude is represented on 16 bits Stereo recording Each second of sound requires 44,100  2  2 = 176,400 data bytes The capacity of an 80-minute disc: 176,400  60  80  807 MB 01/08/201542Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

43. Audio CD discs are not always produced in a complete digital way Processing phases: recording, editing/ mixing, dubbing The type of processing phases: indicated through a three-letter code DDD: completely digital disc ADD: analog recording AAD: analog recording and editing 01/08/201543Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

44. Compact Disc Types CD-DA CD-DA Variants SACD CD-R CD-RW 01/08/201544Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

45. CD-3 Diameter: 3 inches (~8 cm) Capacity: 20 minutes (CD Single) CD+G (CD Plus Graphics) Uses the R ‑ W sub-channel to store the texts of songs or some graphical data These can be displayed with a TV set or a CD- interactive (CD-I) drive 01/08/201545Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

46. CD+MIDI Uses the R ‑ W sub-channel to make special effects synchronized with the music MIDI controls: note, instrument CD-I Ready The interval between index 0 and 1 is increased form 2 seconds to 3 minutes Can be used to record: text of the songs, information about the artist, images Reading this information: with a CD-I drive 01/08/201546Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

47. Compact Disc Types CD-DA CD-DA Variants SACD CD-R CD-RW 01/08/201547Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

48. SACD – Super Audio Compact Disc Uses a recording technology developed by Philips and Sony (2000) The disc contains two layers: A reflective layer (audio CD): stereo, 44.1 KHz, 16 bits/sample A high-density semitransparent layer (DVD): stereo CD-DA recording + 6-channel recording + data 01/08/201548Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

49. The two layers are read with two laser beams, with different wavelengths: Reflective layer: = 780 nm Semitransparent layer: = 650 nm Capacity of the high-density semitransparent layer: 4.38 GB Recording technology: Direct Stream Digital (DSD) Sampling rate: 64 x 44.1 KHz = 2822.4 KHz; 1 bit/sample 01/08/201549Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

50. Pulse Density Modulation (PDM) The signal amplitude is determined by the relative density of the pulses (values of 1) 01/08/2015 Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1) 50

51. Bit rate per channel: 2,822,400 bits/s (4 times higher compared to CD-DA) Frequency response: 0..100 KHz (compared to 5 Hz..20 KHz for CD-DA) Dynamic range (ratio between the highest and lowest sound intensity): 120 dB (compared to 96 dB for CD-DA) The sound quality is also improved when the disc is played back with regular CD players 01/08/201551Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

52. The CD-DA (PCM) recording is obtained from a DSD recording via the Super Bit Mapping Direct conversion technology A FIR digital filter with 32,639 taps is used The quality is comparable with that of 20-bit or 24-bit recordings The stereo recording and the 6-channel recording on the high-density layer use the DSD technology 01/08/201552Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

53. A lossless compression method is used  Direct Stream Transfer The bit rate is reduced with ~50% Copy protection: A watermark (text or graphics) is written to the reflective side of the disc Invisible information is also written to disc Advantages of SACD disc: High quality  allows archiving Compatibility with existing CD players 01/08/201553Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

54. Compact Disc Types CD-DA CD-DA Variants SACD CD-R CD-RW 01/08/201554Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

55. CD-R (CD Recordable) CD ‑ WORM (CD Write Once, Read Many) CD ‑ WO (CD Write Once) Specifications defined in the “Orange Book” document, Part II (1990) CD-ROM discs are based on the CD audio standard, changing the interpretation of data CD ‑ R discs define new physical media and recording methods, using the standard formats 01/08/201555Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

56. Writing method: changing the reflectivity of an organic dye Photosensitive organic dyes: Cyanine (blue cyan) Phthalocyanine (greenish blue) Azo (dark blue) To protect against oxidation, a metal layer (silver alloy or gold) is coated over the dye 01/08/201556Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

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58. Writing: with a laser beam that heats up selectively certain areas In the heated areas, the organic dye changes its chemical composition “Burned” areas reflect light to a lesser degree  correspond to pits “Non-burned” areas reflect light to a higher degree  correspond to lands The disc can be read by regular drives 01/08/201558Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

59. The disc is stamped with a spiral pre-groove It is similar to the spiral on a regular CD The groove is used by the CD ‑ R drive during recording to follow the data path on the disc If the disc were completely unformatted, writing the spiral tracks would be complex The groove has a sinusoidal excursion (deviation) of 0.3 μm at a frequency of 22.05 KHz 01/08/201559Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

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61. CD ‑ R discs have two additional data areas located before the lead-in area Are used to store data specific to the recording process Program Memory Area (PMA) Contains the track numbers of the recorded titles as well as their start and stop addresses 01/08/201561Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

62. Power Calibration Area (PCA) Used to calibrate the laser power  trial recording The optimal power depends on: recording speed, ambient temperature, humidity, disc type A maximum of 99 calibrations are allowed for a disc 01/08/201562Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

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64. Compact Disc Types CD-DA CD-DA Variants SACD CD-R CD-RW 01/08/201564Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

65. CD ‑ RW (CD ReWritable) CD ‑ E (CD Erasable) Specifications defined in the “Orange Book” document, Part III (1997) The dye layer is replaced with a special phase-change recording layer Can change state when a certain energy is applied to it and can return to the initial state 01/08/201565Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

66. When the material is heated to a certain temperature and then is cooled, a crystalline structure is formed  land When the material is heated to a higher temperature, an amorphous structure is formed  pit Recording layer: alloy of silver, indium, antimony, and tellurium Placed between two dielectric layers that eliminate excess heat during writing 01/08/201566Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

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68. Writing The recording layer is heated to a temperature above the melting point The crystals get to an amorphous state If the cooling is fast, the amorphous state is maintained 01/08/201568Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

69. Erasing The recording layer is heated below the melting point, but above the crystallization point The temperature is maintained for a time longer than the min. crystallization time 01/08/201569Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

70. Overwriting New pits are created using the laser beam for writing A constant laser beam is used to create new crystalline lands The process can be repeated about 1000 times 01/08/201570Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

71. The reflectivity of CD-RW discs is lower than that of regular CDs Regular CDs: min. 70% for lands, max. 28% for pits CD-RW discs: 15..25% for lands Dual-function drives The MultiRead specifications of OSTA (Optical Storage Technology Association) have been developed to solve the compatibility issues 01/08/201571Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

72. On optical discs, data are recorded as pits and lands Pits and lands have different reflectivity Data are encoded to provide high density and reliable data recovery For compacts discs, two levels of error correction can be used At the frame level: used for all compact disc formats At the sector level: used for data discs 01/08/201572Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

73. Optical drives use a laser beam positioned with a servomechanism The beam is reflected back and electrical pulses are generated with a photodiode The first CD format developed was the audio compact disc (CD-DA) It uses the Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Various CD-DA formats use the R-W sub- channel to store texts or images 01/08/201573Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

74. SACD discs contain two layers: an audio CD layer and a DVD layer Writing of CD-R discs is based on changing the reflectivity of a photosensitive dye The properties of pits and lands are emulated CD-RW discs use a phase-change recording layer Crystalline and amorphous areas can be formed in a reversible manner Different power settings of the laser are used for writing, erasing, and reading 01/08/201574Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

75. Compact disc data organization levels Compact disc data recording and encoding Levels of error correction Compact disc sub-channels CD-ROM drive structure and operation TrueX technology CD+G format CD+MIDI format SACD format 01/08/201575Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)

76. Direct Stream Digital recording for SACD discs CD-R disc writing Spiral pre-groove of CD-R discs Program memory area of CD-R discs Power calibration area of CD-R discs Phase-change recording layer of CD-RW discs CD-RW disc writing CD-RW disc erasing CD-RW disc overwriting 01/08/201576Input/Output Systems and Peripheral Devices (07-1)