1. Chapter 19: Blood Biology 141 A&P Brashear-Kaulfers

2. What are the components of the cardiovascular system, and their major functions?

3. The Cardiovascular System
A circulating transport system:
a pump (the heart)
a conducting system (blood vessels)
a fluid medium (blood)

4. Functions of the Cardiovascular System
To transport materials to and from cells:
oxygen and carbon dioxide
nutrients
hormones
immune system components
waste products

5. What are the important components and major functions of blood
What are the important components and major functions of blood? Blood Is specialized fluid of connective tissue -contains cells suspended in a fluid matrix

6. 5 Functions of Blood Transport of dissolved substances
Regulation of pH and ions
Restriction of fluid losses at injury sites
Defense against toxins and pathogens
Stabilization of body temperature

7. Whole Blood Plasma: Fluid-Water Formed elements: all cells and solids
Dissolved plasma proteins
Other solutes
Formed elements:
all cells and solids
Figure 19–1a

8. Plasma Is similar to, and exchanges fluids with, interstitial fluid
Is matrix of formed elements

9. 3 Types of Formed Elements
Red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes:
transport oxygen
White blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes:
part of the immune system
Platelets:
cell fragments involved in clotting
Hemopoiesis
Process of producing formed elements
By myeloid and lymphoid stem cells

10. 3 General Characteristics of Blood
38°C (100.4°F) is normal temperature
High viscosity
Slightly alkaline pH (7.35–7.45)
*Blood volume (liters) = 7% of body weight (kilograms):
adult male: 5 to 6 liters
adult female: 4 to 5 liters

11. Plasma Makes up 50–60% of blood volume
More than 90% of plasma is water
Figure 19–1b

12. Extracellular Fluids Interstitial fluid (IF) and plasma
Materials plasma and IF exchange across capillary walls:
water
ions
small solutes
* Differences between Plasma and IF
Levels of O2 and CO2
Dissolved proteins:
plasma proteins do not pass through capillary walls

13. 3 Classes of Plasma Proteins
Albumins (60%)-Transport substances:
fatty acids
thyroid hormones
steroid hormones
Globulins (35%)- Antibodies, also called immunoglobulins
Transport globulins (small molecules):
hormone-binding proteins
metalloproteins
apolipoproteins (lipoproteins)
steroid-binding proteins
Fibrinogen (4%)-Molecules form clots
Produce long, insoluble strands of fibrin

14. Other Plasma Proteins 1% of plasma: Origins of Plasma Proteins :
changing quantities of specialized plasma proteins
enzymes, hormones, and prohormones
Origins of Plasma Proteins :
90% made in liver
Antibodies made by plasma cells
Peptide hormones made by endocrine organs
Serum -liquid part of a blood sample:
in which dissolved fibrinogen has converted to solid fibrin

15. KEY CONCEPT
Total blood volume (liters) = 7% of body weight (kilograms)
About 1/2 the volume of whole blood is cells and cell products
Plasma resembles interstitial fluid, but contains a unique mixture of proteins not found in other extracellular fluids

16. What are the characteristics and functions of red blood cells?

17. Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells (RBCs) make up 99.9% of blood’s formed elements
Red blood cell count: measurements
reports the number of RBCs in 1 microliter whole blood
RBC: normal #
male: 4.5–6.3 million
female: 4.–5.5 million
Hematocrit (packed cell volume, PCV):
percentage of RBCs in centrifuged whole blood
Hematocrit: normal %
male: 4–52
female: 3–47

18. RBC Structure Lifespan of RBCs
Small and highly specialized disc
Thin in middle and thicker at edge
Lifespan of RBCs
Lack nuclei, mitochondria, and ribosomes
Live about 120 days
Figure 19–2d

19. Importance of RBC Shape and Size
High surface-to-volume ratio:
quickly absorbs and releases oxygen
Discs form stacks:
smoothes flow through narrow blood vessels
Discs bend and flex entering small capillaries:
7.8 µm RBC passes through 4 µm capillary

20. Hemoglobin (Hb) Protein molecule, transports respiratory gases
Normal hemoglobin (adult male):
14–18 g/dl whole blood

21. Hemoglobin Structure
Complex quaternary structure
Figure 19–3

22. Hemoglobin Structure 4 globular protein subunits: Iron ions easily:
each with 1 molecule of heme
each heme contains 1 iron ion
Iron ions easily:
associate with oxygen (oxyhemoglobin)
or dissociate from oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin)

23. Fetal Hemoglobin Strong form of hemoglobin found in embryos
Takes oxygen from mother’s hemoglobin
Carbaminohemoglobin
With low oxygen (peripheral capillaries):
hemoglobin releases oxygen
binds carbon dioxide and carries it to lungs

24. Anemia Hematocrit or hemoglobin levels are below normal
Is caused by several conditions

25. Recycling RBCs
Figure 19–4

26. Recycling RBCs 1% of circulating RBCs wear out per day:
about 3 million RBCs per second
Macrophages of liver, spleen, and bone marrow:
monitor RBCs
engulf RBCs before membranes rupture (hemolyze)

27. Diagnosing Disorders Hemoglobinuria: Hematuria:
hemoglobin breakdown products in urine due to excess hemolysis in blood stream
Hematuria:
whole red blood cells in urine due to kidney or tissue damage

28. Hemoglobin Recycling Phagocytes break hemoglobin into components:
globular proteins to amino acids
heme to biliverdin
Iron
Iron Recycling
To transport proteins (transferrin)
To storage proteins (feritin and hemosiderin

29. Breakdown of Biliverdin
Biliverdin (green) is converted to bilirubin (yellow)
Bilirubin is:
excreted by liver (bile)
jaundice is caused by bilirubin buildup
converted by intestinal bacteria to urobilins and stercobilins

30. RBC Maturation Erythropoiesis - Red blood cell formation
Occurs only in red bone marrow (myeloid tissue)
Stem cells mature to become RBCs
Figure 19–5

31. Hemocytoblasts Stem cells in bone marrow divide to produce:
myeloid stem cells:
become RBCs, some WBCs
lymphoid stem cells:
become lymphocytes

32. Stages of RBC Maturation
Myeloid stem cell
Proerythroblast
Erythroblasts
Reticulocyte
Mature RBC
Components for Building red blood cells
amino acids
iron
vitamins B12, B6, and folic acid

33. Stimulating Hormones Erythropoietin (EPO)
Also called erythropoiesis-stimulating hormone:
secreted when oxygen in peripheral tissues is low (hypoxia)
due to disease or high altitude

34. RBC Tests
Table 19–1

35. KEY CONCEPT- RBC
Red blood cells (RBCs) are the most numerous cells in the body
RBCs circulate for approximately 4 months before recycling
Several million are produced each second
Hemoglobin in RBCs transports:
oxygen from lungs to peripheral tissues
carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs

36. Blood Typing -Surface Antigens
Are cell surface proteins that identify cells to immune system
Normal cells are ignored and foreign cells attacked

37. 4 Basic Blood Types Blood types are genetically determined
By presence or absence of RBC surface antigens A, B, Rh
Figure 19–6a

38. 4 Basic Blood Types A (surface antigen A) B (surface antigen B)
AB (antigens A and B)
O (neither A nor B)
Agglutinogens
Antigens on surface of RBCs
Screened by immune system
Plasma antibodies attack (agglutinate) foreign antigens

39. Blood Plasma Antibodies
Type A: type B antibodies
Type B: type A antibodies
Type O: both A and B antibodies
Type AB: neither A nor B

40. The Rh Factor Also called D antigen
Either Rh positive (Rh+) or Rh negative (Rh—)
Only sensitized Rh— blood has anti-Rh antibodies

41. Cross-Reaction Also called transfusion reaction
Plasma antibody meets its specific surface antigen
Blood will agglutinate and hemolyze
If donor and recipient blood types not compatible

42. Blood Type Test Determines blood type and compatibility
Cross-Match Test
Performed on donor and recipient blood for compatibility
Without cross-match, type O— is universal donor
Figure 19–7

43. Based on structures and functions, what are the types of white blood cells, and what factors regulate the production of each type?

44. White Blood Cells (WBCs)
Also called leukocytes
Do not have hemoglobin
Have nuclei and other organelles
WBC Functions:
Defend against pathogens
Remove toxins and wastes
Attack abnormal cells

45. WBC Movement Most WBCs in: Small numbers in blood: Circulating WBCs
connective tissue proper
lymphatic system organs
Small numbers in blood:
6000 to 9000 per microliter
Circulating WBCs
Migrate out of bloodstream
Have amoeboid movement
Attracted to chemical stimuli (positive chemotaxis)
Some are phagocytic:
neutrophils, eosinophils, and monocytes

46. 5 Types of WBCs Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Monocytes
Lymphocytes
Figure 19–9

47. Neutrophils Also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes
50–70% of circulating WBCs
Pale cytoplasm granules with:
lysosomal enzymes
bactericides (hydrogen peroxide and superoxide)

48. Neutrophil Action Very active, first to attack bacteria
Engulf pathogens
Digest pathogens
Release prostaglandins and leukotrienes
Form pus

49. Degranulation Removing granules from cytoplasm Defensins:
peptides from lysosomes
attack pathogen membranes

50. Eosinophils Also called acidophils 2–4% of circulating WBCs
Attack large parasites
Excrete toxic compounds:
nitric oxide
cytotoxic enzymes

51. Eosinophil Actions Are sensitive to allergens
Control inflammation with enzymes that counteract inflammatory effects of neutrophils and mast cells

52. Basophils Are less than 1% of circulating WBCs Are small
Accumulate in damaged tissue
Basophil Actions –
Release histamine:
dilates blood vessels
Release heparin:
prevents blood clotting

53. Monocytes 2–8% of circulating WBCs Are large and spherical
Enter peripheral tissues and become macrophages
Macrophage Actions –
Engulf large particles and pathogens
Secrete substances that attract immune system cells and fibroblasts to injured area

54. Lymphocytes 20–30% of circulating WBCs Are larger than RBCs
Migrate in and out of blood
Mostly in connective tissues and lymphatic organs
Lymphocyte Actions
Are part of the body’s specific defense system

55. 3 Classes of Lymphocytes
T cells -Cell-mediated immunity
Attack foreign cells directly
2. B cells -Humoral immunity
Differentiate into plasma cells
Synthesize antibodies
3. Natural killer (NK) cells -Detect and destroy abnormal tissue cells (cancers)

56. The Differential Count of Circulating WBCs
Detects changes in WBC populations
Infections, inflammation, and allergic reactions
WBC Disorders
Leukopenia:
abnormally low WBC count
Leukocytosis:
abnormally high WBC count
Leukemia:
extremely high WBC count

57. KEY CONCEPT RBCs outnumber WBCs 1000:1
WBCs defend against infection, foreign cells, or toxins
WBCs clean up and repair damaged tissues
The most numerous WBCs:
neutrophils – engulf bacteria
Lymphocytes-are responsible for specific defenses of immune response

58. WBC Production Origins and Differentiation of Formed Elements PLAY
Figure 19–10

59. WBC Production All blood cells originate from hemocytoblasts:
which produce myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells
Myeloid Stem Cells
Differentiate into progenitor cells:
which produce all WBCs except lymphocytes

60. Lymphocytes Are produced by lymphoid stem cells Lymphopoiesis:
the production of lymphocytes

61. WBC Development WBCs, except monocytes: Monocytes: Other Lymphopoiesis
develop fully in bone marrow
Monocytes:
develop into macrophages in peripheral tissues
Other Lymphopoiesis
Some lymphoid stem cells migrate to peripheral lymphoid tissues (thymus, spleen, lymph nodes)
Also produce lymphocytes

62. 4 Colony-Stimulating Factors (CSFs)
Hormones that regulate blood cell populations:
1. M-CSF:-stimulates monocyte production
2. G-CSF:-stimulates granulocyte production
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

63. Summary: Formed Elements of Blood
Table 19–3

64. Platelets Cell fragments involved in human clotting system
Nonmammalian vertebrates have thrombocytes (nucleated cells)
Circulates for 9–12 days
Are removed by spleen
2/3 are reserved for emergencies

65. Platelet Counts 150,000 to 500,000 per microliter Thrombocytopenia:
abnormally low platelet count
Thrombocytosis:
abnormally high platelet count

66. 3 Functions of Platelets
Release important clotting chemicals
Temporarily patch damaged vessel walls
Actively contract tissue after clot formation
Platelet production- called thrombocytopoiesis:
occurs in bone marrow

67. Megakaryocytes Giant cells Manufacture platelets from cytoplasm
Hormonal Controls
Thrombopoietin (TPO)
Inteleukin-6 (IL-6)
Multi-CSF

68. What mechanisms control blood loss after injury, and what is the reaction sequence in blood clotting?

69. Hemostasis The cessation of bleeding: vascular phase platelet phase
coagulation phase

70. The Vascular Phase A cut triggers vascular spasm 30-minute contraction
Figure 19–11a

71. 3 Steps of the Vascular Phase
Endothelial cells contract:
expose basal lamina to bloodstream
Endothelial cells release:
chemical factors:
ADP, tissue factor, and prostacyclin
local hormones:
endothelins
stimulate smooth muscle contraction and cell division
Endothelial cell membranes become “sticky”:
seal off blood flow

72. The Platelet Phase
Begins within 15 seconds after injury
Figure 19–11b

73. The Platelet Phase Platelet adhesion (attachment):
to sticky endothelial surfaces
to basal laminae
to exposed collagen fibers
Platelet aggregation (stick together):
forms platelet plug
closes small breaks

74. Activated Platelets Release Clotting Compounds
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Thromboxane A2 and serotonin
Clotting factors
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
Calcium ions

75. Platelet Plug: Size Restriction
Prostacyclin:
released by endothelial cells
inhibits platelet aggregation
Inhibitory compounds:
released by other white blood cells
Circulating enzymes:
break down ADP
Negative (inhibitory) feedback:
from serotonin
Development of blood clot:
isolates area

76. The Coagulation Phase Begins 30 seconds or more after the injury
Figure 19–12a

77. The Coagulation Phase Blood clotting (coagulation): Blood Clot
Involves a series of steps
converts circulating fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin
Blood Clot
Fibrin network
Covers platelet plug
Traps blood cells
Seals off area

78. Clotting Factors Also called procoagulants Proteins or ions in plasma
Required for normal clotting

79. Plasma Clotting Factors
Table 19–4

80. Cascade Reactions During coagulation phase
Chain reactions of enzymes and proenzymes
Form 3 pathways

81. 3 Coagulation Pathways Extrinsic pathway: Intrinsic pathway:
begins in the vessel wall
outside blood stream
Intrinsic pathway:
begins with circulating proenzymes
within bloodstream

82. 3 Coagulation Pathways Common pathway:
where intrinsic and extrinsic pathways converge

83. The Extrinsic Pathway Damaged cells release tissue factor (TF)
TF + other compounds = enzyme complex
Activates Factor X

84. The Intrinsic Pathway Activation of enzymes by collagen
Platelets release factors (e.g., PF–3)
Series of reactions activate Factor X

85. The Common Pathway Enzymes activate Factor X
Forms enzyme prothrombinase
Converts prothrombin to thrombin
Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin

86. Functions of Thrombin Stimulates formation of tissue factor
stimulates release of PF-3:
forms positive feedback loop (intrinsic and extrinsic):
accelerates clotting
Bleeding Time
Normally, a small puncture wound stops bleeding in 1–4 minutes

87. Clotting: Area Restriction
Anticoagulants (plasma proteins):
antithrombin-III
alpha-2-macroglobulin
Heparin
Protein C (activated by thrombomodulin)
Prostacyclin

88. Other Factors
Calcium ions (Ca2+) and vitamin K are both essential to the clotting process

89. Clot Retraction After clot has formed: Takes 30–60 minutes
Platelets contract and pull torn area together
Takes 30–60 minutes

90. Fibrinolysis Slow process of dissolving clot:
thrombin and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA):
activate plasminogen
Plasminogen produces plasmin:
digests fibrin strands

91. KEY CONCEPT-Platelets
Platelets are involved in coordination of hemostasis (blood clotting)
Platelets, activated by abnormal changes in local environment, release clotting factors and other chemicals
Hemostasis is a complex cascade that builds a fibrous patch that can be remodeled and removed as the damaged area is repaired

92. SUMMARY (1) Functions of cardiovascular system 5 functions of blood
Structure of whole blood:
plasma and formed elements
Process of blood cell formation (hemopoiesis)
3 classes of plasma proteins:
albumins
globulins
fibrinogen

93. SUMMARY (2) RBC structure and function
Hemoglobin structure and function
RBC production and recycling
Blood types:
ABO and Rh
WBC structure and function
5 types of WBCs:
neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils
monocytes
lymphocytes

94. SUMMARY (3) Differential WBC counts and disease WBC production
Platelet structure and function
Platelet production
3 phases of hemostasis:
vascular
platelet
coagulation
Fibrinolysis