1. دكتورمحمد عبده مسلم أستاذ بيئة وفسيولوجيا الميكروبات المشارك قسم النبات والأحياء الدقيقة كلية العلوم جامعة لملك سعود

2. Microbial Metabolism
Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions that occur within a living a living organism.
These chemical reactions are generally of two types:
Catabolic: Degradative reactions that release energy by breaking down large, complex molecules into smaller ones.
Often involve hydrolysis, breaking bonds with water.
Anabolic: Biosynthetic reactions that build large complex molecules from simpler ones.
Require energy and often involve dehydration synthesis.

3. Coupling of Anabolic and Catabolic Reactions
Catabolic reactions provide the energy needed to drive anabolic reactions.
ATP stores energy from catabolic reactions and releases it to drive anabolic reactions.
Catabolic reactions are often coupled to ATP synthesis:
ADP + Pi + Energy > ATP
Anabolic reactions are often coupled to ATP hydrolysis:
ATP > ADP + Pi + Energy
Efficiency: Only part of the energy released in catabolism is available for work, the rest is lost as heat. Energy transformations are inefficient.

4. Anabolic and Catabolic Reactions are Linked by ATP in Living Organisms

5. Enzymes Protein molecules that catalyze chemical reactions.
Enzymes are highly specific and usually catalyze only one or a few closely related reactions.
Sucrase
Sucrose + H2O > Glucose + Fructose
(substrate) (products)
Enzymes are extremely efficient. Speed up reaction up to 10 billion times more than without enzyme.
Turnover number: Number of substrate molecules an enzyme molecule converts to product each second. Ranges from 1 to 500,000.

6. Enzymes (Continued)
The rate of a chemical reaction depends on temperature, pressure, substrate concentration, pH, and several other factors in the cell.
Energy of activation: The amount of energy required to trigger a chemical reaction.
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by decreasing their energy of activation without increasing the temperature or pressure inside the cell.
Example: Bring reactants together, create stress on a bond, etc.

7. Enzymes Lower the Energy of Activation of a Chemical Reaction

8. Naming Enzymes Enzyme names typically end in -ase.
There are six classes of enzymes
1. Oxidoreductases: Catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions. Include dehydrogenases and oxidases.
2. Transferases: Transfer functional groups (amino, phosphate, etc).
3. Hydrolases: Hydrolysis, break bonds by adding water.
4. Lyases: Remove groups of atoms without hydrolysis.
5. Isomerases: Rearrange atoms within a molecule.
6. Ligases: Join two molecules, usually with energy provided by ATP hydrolysis.

9. Enzyme Components Some enzymes consist of protein only.
Others have a protein portion (apoenzyme) and a nonprotein component (cofactor).
Holoenzyme = Apoenzyme + Cofactor
Enzyme cofactors may be a metal ion (Mg2+ , Ca2+, etc.) or an organic molecule (coenzyme). Many coenzymes are derived from vitamins.
Examples:
NAD+: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
NADP+: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
are both cofactors derived from niacin (B vitamin).
Coenzyme A is derived from panthotenic acid.

10. Components of a Holoenzyme

11. Mechanism of Enzymatic Action
Surface of enzyme contains an active site that binds specifically to the substrate.
1. An enzyme-substrate complex forms.
2. Substrate molecule is transformed by:
Rearrangement of existing atoms
Breakdown of substrate molecule
Combination with another substrate molecule
3. Products of reaction no longer fit the active site and are released.
4. Unchanged enzyme is free to bind to more substrate molecules.

12. Mechanism of Enzymatic Action

13. Factors Affecting Enzymatic Action
Enzymes are protein molecules and their three- dimensional shape is essential for their function. The shape of the active site must not be altered so that it can bind specifically to the substrate. Several factors can affects enzyme activity:
Temperature: Most enzymes have an optimal temperature. At low temperatures most reactions proceed slowly due to slow particle movement. At very high temperatures reactions slow down because the enzyme is denatured.
Denaturation: Loss of three-dimensional protein structure. Involves breakage of H and noncovalent bonds.

14. Denaturation of a Protein Abolishes its Activity

15. Factors that Affect Enzyme Activity: pH, Temperature, and Substrate Concentration

16. Factors Affecting Enzymatic Action
pH: Most enzymes have an optimum pH. Above or below this value activity slows down. Extreme changes in pH cause denaturation.
Substrate concentration: Enzyme acts at maximum rate at high substrate concentration.
Saturation point: Substrate concentration at which enzyme is acting at maximum rate possible.
Inhibitors: Inhibit enzyme activity. Two types:
Competitive inhibitors: Bind to enzyme active site. Example: Sulfa drugs, AZT.
Noncompetitive inhibitors: Bind to an allosteric site.
Example: Cyanide, fluoride.

17. Competitive versus Noncompetitive Enzyme Inhibitors

18. Factors Affecting Enzymatic Action
Feedback Inhibition: Also known as end-product inhibition.
Some allosteric inhibitors stop cell from making more of a product than it needs.
The end product of a series of reactions, inhibits the activity of an earlier enzyme.
Enzyme Enzyme Enzyme 3
A > B > C > D
Enzyme 1 is inhibited by product D.
Feedback inhibition is used to regulate ATP, amino acid, nucleotide, and vitamin synthesis by the cell.

19. Feedback Inhibition of an Enzymatic Pathway

20. Ribozymes Catalytic RNA molecules
Have active sites that bind to substrates
Discovered in 1982
Act on RNA substrates by cutting and splicing them.

21. Energy Production
Oxidation-Reduction or Redox Reactions: Reactions in which both oxidation and reduction occur.
Oxidation: Removal of electrons or H atoms
Addition of oxygen
Associated with loss of energy
Reduction: Gain of electrons or H atoms
Loss of oxygen
Associated with gain of energy
Examples: Aerobic respiration & photosynthesis are redox processes.

22. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

23. Aerobic Respiration is a Redox Reaction
C6H12O6 + 6 O > 6 CO H2O + ATP
Glucose oxygen oxidized reduced

24. ATP Production
Some of the energy released in oxidation-reduction processes is trapped as ATP; the rest is lost as heat.
Phosphorylation reaction:
ADP + Energy + P > ATP
There are three different mechanisms of ATP phosphorylation in living organisms:
1. Substrate-Level Phosphorylation:
Direct transfer of phosphate from phosphorylated compound to ADP.
Simple process that does not require intact membranes.
Generates a small amount of energy during aerobic respiration.

25. Two Mechanisms of ATP Synthesis:
Oxidative and Substrate Level Phosphorylation

26. 2. Oxidative Phosphorylation:
Involves electron transport chain, in which electrons are transferred from organic compounds to electron carriers (NAD+ or FAD) to a final electron acceptor (O2 or other inorganic compounds).
Occurs on membranes (plasma membrane of procaryotes or inner mitochondrial membrane of eucaryotes).
ATP is generated through chemiosmosis.
Generates most of the ATP in aerobic respiration.
3. Photophosphorylation:
Occurs in photosynthetic cells only.
Convert solar energy into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH).
Also involves an electron transport chain.

27. Carbohydrate Catabolism
Most microorganisms use glucose or other carbohydrates as their primary source of energy.
Lipids and proteins are also used as energy sources.
Two general processes are used to obtain energy from glucose: cellular respiration and fermentation.

28. Carbohydrate Catabolism
I. Cellular respiration:
ATP generating process in which food molecules are oxidized.
Requires an electron transport chain.
Final electron acceptor is an inorganic molecule:
Aerobic respiration final electron acceptor is oxygen. Much more efficient process.
Anaerobic respiration final electron acceptor is another inorganic molecule. Energetically inefficient process.

29. II. Fermentation:
Releases energy from sugars or other organic molecules.
Does not require oxygen, but may occur in its presence.
Does not require an electron transport chain.
Final electron acceptor is organic molecule.
Inefficient: Produces a small amount of ATP for each molecule of food.
End-products are energy rich organic compounds:
Lactic acid
Alcohol

30. Aerobic Respiration versus Fermentation

31. Cellular Respiration I. Aerobic Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6 O > 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP
Glucose oxygen oxidized reduced
Most energy efficient catabolic process.
Oxygen is final electron acceptor.
Aerobic Respiration occurs in three stages:
1. Glycolysis
2. Kreb’s Cycle
3. Electron Transport & Chemiosmosis

32. Three Stages of Aerobic Respiration

33. Cellular Respiration I. Stages of Aerobic Respiration
1. Glycolysis: “Splitting of sugar”.
Glucose (6 C) is split and oxidized to two molecules of pyruvic acid (3C).
Most organisms can carry out this process.
Does not require oxygen.
Net yield per glucose molecule:
2 ATP (substrate level phosphorylation)
2 NADH

34. In Glycolysis Glucose is Split into Two Molecules of Pyruvic Acid

35. Cellular Respiration I. Stages of Aerobic Respiration
2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle):
Before cycle can start, pyruvic acid (3C) loses one carbon (as CO2) to become acetyl CoA (2C).
Acetyl CoA (2C) joins oxaloacetic acid (4C) to form citric acid (6C).
Cycle of 8 oxidation-reduction reactions that transfer energy to electron carrier molecules (coenzymes NAD+ and FAD).
2 molecules of carbon dioxide are lost during each cycle.
Oxaloacetic acid is regenerated in final step.
Net yield per glucose molecule:
2 ATP (substrate level phosphorylation)
8 NADH
2 FADH2

36. Pyruvic Acid is Converted to Acetyl CoA Before the Kreb’s Cycle Starts
Notice that carbon dioxide is lost.

37. Kreb’s Cycle: Two Carbons In & Two Out

38. Cellular Respiration I. Stages of Aerobic Respiration
3. Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis:
Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are released to chain of electron carriers.
Electron carriers are on cell membrane (plasma membrane of bacteria or inner mitochondrial membrane in eucaryotes).
Final electron acceptor is oxygen.
A proton gradient is generated across membrane as electrons flow down chain.
ATP is made by ATP synthase (chemiosmosis) as protons flow down concentration gradient.
Net ATP yield:
2 FADH2 generate 2 ATPs each: 4 ATP
10 NADH generate 3 ATPs each: 30 ATP

39. Electron Transport Chain in Aerobic Respiration: Oxygen is Final Electron Acceptor

40. Chemiosmosis in Aerobic Respiration: ATP Synthesis Requires Intact Membranes

41. Summary of Aerobic Respiration in Procaryotes

42. C6H12O6 + 6 O2-----> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP In eucaryotes:
Total Yield from Aerobic Respiration of 1 Glucose molecule: molecules of ATP
In procaryotes:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2-----> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP
In eucaryotes:
C6H12O6 + 6 O > 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP
Yield is lower in eucaryotes because transport of
pyruvic acid into mitochondria requires energy.

43. Cellular Respiration II. Anaerobic Respiration
Final electron acceptor is not oxygen.
Instead it is an inorganic molecule:
Nitrate (NO3-): Pseudomonas and Bacillus. Reduced to nitrite (NO2-):, nitrous oxide, or nitrogen gas.
Sulfate (SO42-): Desulfovibrio. Reduced to hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
Carbonate (CO32-): Reduced to methane.
Inefficient (2 ATPs per glucose molecule).
Only part of the Krebs cycle operates without oxygen.
Not all carriers in electron transport chain participate.
Anaerobes tend to grow more slowly than aerobes.

44. Fermentation Releases energy from sugars or other organic molecules.
Does not require oxygen, but may occur in its presence.
Does not require Krebs cycle or an electron transport chain.
Final electron acceptor is organic molecule.
Inefficient. Produces a small amount of ATP for each molecule of food. (1 or 2 ATPs)
End-products may be lactic acid, alcohol, or other energy rich organic compounds.
Lactic Acid Fermentation: Carried out by Lactobacillus and Streptococcus. Can result in food spoilage. Used to make yogurt, sauerkraut, and pickles.
Alcohol Fermentation: Carried out by yeasts and bacteria.

45. Fermentation is Less Efficient Than Aerobic Respiration

46. Alcohol and Lactic Acid Fermentation

47. Fermentation: Generates Various Energy Rich, Organic End-Products

48. Catabolism of Various Organic Food Molecules

49. Light Dependent Reactions
Photosynthesis
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light -----> C6H12O O2
Light Dependent Reactions
Light energy is trapped by chlorophyll.
Water is split into oxygen and hydrogen.
NADP+ is reduced to NADPH.
ATP is made.
Light Independent Reactions
Do not require light.
CO2 from air is fixed and used to make sugar.
Sugar is synthesized, using ATP and NADPH.

50. Metabolic Diversity Energy Source Carbon Source
Living organisms can be classified based on where they obtain their energy and carbon.
Energy Source
Phototrophs: Light is primary energy source.
Chemotrophs: Oxidation of chemical compounds.
Carbon Source
Autotrophs: Carbon dioxide.
Heterotrophs: Organic carbon source.

51. Four Groups Based on Metabolic Diversity
1. Chemoheterotrophs:
Energy source: Organic compounds.
Carbon source: Organic compounds.
Examples: Most bacteria, all protozoans, all fungi, and all animals.
2. Chemoautotrophs:
Energy source: Inorganic compounds (H2S, NH3, S, H2, Fe2+, etc.)
Carbon source: Carbon dioxide.
Examples: Iron, sulfur, hydrogen, and nitrifying bacteria.
3. Photoheterotrophs:
Energy source: Light.
Examples: Purple and green nonsulfur bacteria.
4. Photoautotrophs:
Examples: Plants, algae, photosynthetic bacteria

52. Organisms Are Classified Based on Their Metabolic Requirements

53. Thank You