1. Sociology: Perspective, Theory, and Method

2. “...The systematic study of human society ”
What Is Sociology?
“...The systematic study of human society ”
Systematic
Scientific discipline that focuses attention on patterns of behavior
Human society
Group behavior is primary focus; How groups influence individuals and vice versa
At the “heart of sociology”
The sociological perspective which offers a unique view of society

3. Benefits of the Sociological Perspective
Helps us assess the truth of common sense
Helps us assess both opportunities and constraints in our lives
Empowers us to be active participants in our society
Helps us live in a diverse world

4. Importance of Global Perspective
Where we live makes a great difference in shaping our lives
Societies throughout the world are increasingly interconnected through technology and economics
Many problems that we faced in the united states are more serious elsewhere
Thinking globally is a good way to learn more about ourselves

5. The Sociological Perspective: Peter Berger
Seeing the general in the particular
Sociologists identify general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals
Individuals are unique…but
Society’s social forces shape us into “kinds” of people
Seeing the strange in the familiar
Giving up the idea that human behavior is simply a matter of what people decide to do
Understanding that society shapes our lives

6. Durkheim’s Study of Suicide
Emile Durkheim’s research showed that society affects even our most personal choices.
More likely to commit: male protestants who were wealthy and unmarried.
Less likely to commit: male JEWS and CATHOLICS who were poor and married.
One of the basic findings: why?
The differences between these groups had to do with “social integration.”
Those with strong social ties had less of a chance of COMMITING suicide.

7. Figure 1-1 (p. 3) Rate of Death by Suicide, by Race and Sex, for the United States

8. THE ORIGINS OF SOCIOLOGY
One of the youngest of academic disciplines, sociology has it origins in powerful social forces:
Social Change
Industrialization, urbanization, political revolution, and a new awareness of society
Science
3-Stages: Theological, Metaphysical & Scientific
Positivism – a way of understanding based on science
Gender & Race
These important contributions have been pushed to the margins of society

9. Sociological Theory
Theory: a statement of how and why facts are related
Explains social behavior to the real world
Theoretical paradigm: a set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking
Three major approaches
Structural-functional
Social-conflict
Symbolic-interaction

10. Structural –Functional Paradigm
The basics
A macro-level orientation, concerned with broad patterns that shape society as a whole
Views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability
Key elements:
Social structure refers to any relatively stable patterns of social behavior found in social institutions
Social function refers to the consequences for the operation of society as a whole

11. Who’s Who in Structural-Functional Paradigm
Auguste Comte
Importance of social integration during times of rapid change
Emile Durkheim
Helped establish sociology as a university discipline
Herbert Spencer
Compared society to the human body, organic approach
Talcott parsons
Sought to identify tasks that every society must perform
Robert K. Merton
Manifest functions are recognized and intended consequences
Latent functions are unrecognized and unintended consequences
Social dysfunctions are undesirable consequences

12. Social-Conflict Paradigm
The basics:
A macro-oriented paradigm
Views society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change
Key elements:
Society is structured in ways to benefit a few at the expense of the majority
Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to social inequality
Dominant group vs. Minority group relations
Incompatible interests and major differences

13. Who’s Who in Social-Conflict Paradigm
Karl Marx
The importance of social class in inequality and social conflict
W.E.B. DuBois
Race as the major problem facing the United States in the twentieth century

14. Symbolic Interaction Paradigm
The basics:
A micro-level orientation, a close-up focus on social interactions in specific situations
Views society as the product of everyday interactions of individuals
Key elements:
Society is nothing more than the shared reality that people construct as they interact with one another
Society is a complex, ever-changing mosaic of subjective meanings

15. Who’s Who in Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm
Max Weber
Understanding a setting from the people in it
George Herbert Mead
How we build personalities form social experience
Erving Goffman
Dramaturgical analysis
George Homans & Peter Blau
Social-exchange analysis

16. Forms of Truth Belief or faith Expert testimony Simple agreement
Science
Logical system that bases knowledge on direct systematic observation

17. 3 Frameworks for Sociological Investigation
Scientific sociology
The study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior
Empirical evidence – information we can verify with our senses
Interpretive sociology
The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world
Critical sociology
The study of society that focuses on the need for change

18. Scientific Sociology Terminology
Concepts
A mental construct that represent some part of the world in a simplified form
Variables
Concepts whose values change from case to case
Measurement
A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case
Operationalizing a variable
Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable

19. Scientific Sociology Terminology
Reliability – consistency in measurement
Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure of the subject matter?
Validity – precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure
Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out to measure?

20. Causation Cause and effect Types of variables Correlation
A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another
Types of variables
Independent: the variable that causes the change
Dependent: the variable that changes (it’s value depends upon the independent variable)
Correlation
A relationship by which two or more variables change together
Spurious correlation
An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more variables caused by some other variable

21. Correlation Does Not Mean Causation
Conditions for cause and effect to be considered
Existence of a correlation
The independent (causal) variable precedes the dependent variable in time
No evidence suggests that a third variable is responsible for a spurious correlation between the two original variables

22. Scientific Sociology Terminology
Objectivity
A state of personal neutrality in conducting research
Value-free research
Weber says sociologists should strive to be dispassionate and detached
Replication
Repetition of research by other investigators
Helps limit distortion caused by personal values

23. Limitations of Scientific Sociology
Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions
The mere presence of the researcher may affect the behavior being studied
Social patterns change
Sociologists are part of the world they study making value-free research difficult

24. Gender And Research Androcentricity Gynocentricity Overgeneralizing
Approaching the topic from a male-only perspective
Gynocentricity
Approaching the topic from a female-only perspective (less common than Androcentricity)
Overgeneralizing
Using data collected from one sex and applying the findings to both sexes
Gender blindness
The failure to consider the impact of gender at all
Double standards
Using different standards to judge males and females
Interference
This occurs when a subject under study reacts to the sex of the researcher and thereby interferes with the research operation

25. Ethical Guidelines for Research
Must strive to be technically competent & fair-minded
Must disclose findings in full without omitting significant data & be willing to share their data
Must protect the safety, rights and privacy of subjects
Must obtain informed consent-- subjects are aware of of risks and responsibilities and agree
Must disclose all sources of funding & avoid conflicts of interest
Must demonstrate cultural sensitivity

26. Sociological Research Methods a Systematic Plan for Conducting Research
Experiment – a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions
Hypothesis – an unverified statement of a relationship between variables (an educated guess)
Placebo – a treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experiment
Hawthorne effect – a change in a subject's behavior caused by the awareness of being studied

27. Survey Research a Research Method in Which Subjects Respond to a Series of Statements or Questions in a Questionnaire or Interview
Population
The people who are the focus of the research
Sample
The part of the population that represents the whole
Random Sample
Drawing a sample from a population so that every element of the population ahs an equal chance of being selected

28. Questionnaire a Series of Written Questions a Researcher Presents to Subjects
Closed-ended
A series of fixed responses; easy to analyze but narrows range of responses
Open-ended
Free response; broadens range of responses but harder to analyze
Most surveys are self-administered; pretesting can avoid costly problems

29. Other Research Methods
Interviews
A series of questions a researcher administers in person to respondents
Participant observation
A research method in which a investigators systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities
Secondary analysis
A research method in which a researcher used data collected by others

30. 10 Steps In Sociological Investigation
Select and define topic
Review the literature
Develop key questions to ask
Assess requirements for study
Consider ethical issues
Select a research methodology
Collect the data
Interpret the findings
State conclusions
Publish the findings