1. Persons with Learning Disabilities
Chapter 6
Persons with Learning Disabilities

2. Learning Disabilities
Samuel Kirk, 1962
“…A retardation, disorder or delayed development in one or more of the processes of speech, language, reading, writing, arithmetic, or other school subjects resulting from a psychological handicap caused by possible cerebral dysfunction and/or emotional or behavioral disturbances. It is not the result of mental retardation, sensory deprivation, or cultural and instructional factors.”

3. Specific Learning Disabilities Act of 1969
Disorder in basic psychological processes
Spoken and written language
Manifested in specific disorders
Listening, thinking, talking, reading, writing, spelling, or arithmetic
Included were perceptual handicaps, brain injury minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, developmental aphasia
Not included were learning problems attributed to:
Visual, hearing, or motor handicaps
Mental retardation, emotional disturbances
Environmental disadvantage

4. IDEA (101-476) I Specific learning disability
Disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in
Understanding or using language, spoken or written
May manifest in an imperfect ability to
LISTEN
SPEAK
READ
WRITE
SPELL
MATHEMATICAL CALCULATIONS

5. IDEA (101-476) II The term learning disability includes
Perceptual handicaps
Brain injury
Minimal brain dysfunction
Dyslexia
Developmental aphasia
The term learning disability does not include learning difficulties resulting primarily from
Visual, hearing, or motor handicaps
Mental retardation or emotional disturbance
Environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage
(U.S. Office of Education, 1977, p )

6. Severe Discrepancy
Discrepancy between student’s academic performance and his or her estimated or assumed ability or potential
Based on assumption of overall average to above average IQ
A discrepancy of two or more years below expected performance levels in one academic area
Parameters not specified nor authorized by federal definition

7. Controversial Definitions
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 1981
Heterogenous groups
Concomitant handicapping conditions
Learning Disabilities Association of America, 1986
Chronic condition of neurological origin varying in manifestation and degree
Affecting self-esteem, education, vocation, socialization, and/or daily living activities

8. History of the Field Learning Disabilities
Four phases
Foundation ( )
Transition ( )
Integration ( )
Current (1980-present)

9. Foundation Phase 1800-1930 Emphasis on brain research
Hinshelwood- “word blindness”, brain defect
Goldstein- behavioral and perceptual impairments resulting from brain damage
Strauss & Werner- Wayne County Training School
Mental retardation attributed to brain damage rather than genetic factors
Characteristics suggested need for instructional tactics

10. Transition Phase
Emphasis on clinical study, assessment, and remediation strategies
Orton- cerebral dominance, dyslexia
Fernald- remedial programs
VAKT- multisensory approach to learning
Kephart- perceptual motor theory of learning
Frostig- visual perceptual skills
Developmental Test of Visual Perception

11. Integration Phase ( )
Established disability area in US schools
Samuel Kirk- popularized term learning disabilities
Specific Learning Disabilities Act of 1969
Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975,PL forerunner to IDEA
Bill of Rights for children with disabilities
Formation of The Council for Learning Disabilities

12. Current Phase (1980- present)
Turbulent transitions and challenges
Movement for full inclusion
Culturally and linguistically diverse learners
Computer technology, issues and trends
Impact of attention deficit disorder research
Controversy over assessment and the use of the severe discrepancy criteria for placement

13. Prevalence 2.8 million pupils ages 6-21
Largest category of special education, slightly less than 50% of all individuals receiving service
Dramatic increase since the 1970’s
Possible reasons
Ambiguous parameters
Increase public awareness
Improved diagnostic and assessment capabilities
High social acceptance of the label

14. Etiology I Acquired trauma Injury to the central nervous system
Prenatal- smoking, drugs, alcohol
Perinatal- anoxia, low birth weight, prematurity, difficult delivery, forcep trauma
Postnatal- high fever, stroke, concussion, TBI

15. Etiology II Genetic/Hereditary Influences
Familiality studies are not conclusive
Suggest speech, reading, and language difficulties may occur in certain families but cannot eliminate the influence of environmental reasons
Heritability studies compare twins
Certain types of learning problems are more common among identical twins than fraternal twins

16. Etiology III Biochemical abnormalities
Fiengold theory- proposed that allergic reaction to food products contributed to hyperactive behavior; not substantiated within the scientific community
Cott’s megavitamin theory- learning disability resulting from vitamin deficiency; not substantiated by scientific community

17. Etiology IV Environmental possibilities
Contributing to neurological dysfunction
Low socioeconomic status
Malnutrition
Lack of access to health care
Quality of instruction
Poor teachers and inadequate instruction
Lack of direct systematic instruction

18. Characteristics (Lerner, 2000)
Disorders of attention
Poor motor abilities
Psychological process deficits
Information/processing problems
Oral language difficulties
Reading and written language difficulties
Quantitative disorders
Social skill deficits

19. Learning Disabilities
Reading
Mathematics
Written language
Spoken language
Short term memory
Working memory
Metacognition
Attributions

21. Academic Characteristics
Reading
Deficits in:
Oral language
Written language
Mathematics

22. Disability in Reading Reading comprehension Word recognition errors
Cannot recall facts, sequences, or main themes
Word recognition errors
Omissions, insertions, substitutions, reversals
Oral reading
Insecurity, loses place
Word analysis skills
Phonological awareness difficulties, dyslexia

23. Disability Area Mathematics
Computation skills
Word problems
Spatial relationships
Writing or copying shapes
Telling time
Understanding fractions/decimals
Measuring

24. Disability in Written Language
Spelling
Omission or substitution of letters
Auditory memory and discrimination difficulties
Handwriting
Absence of fine motor skills
Lack of understanding of spatial relationships
Composition
Sentence structure
Paragraph organization
Complexity of stories

25. Disability in Memory Short-term memory Working memory
Recalling in correct order, of either aurally or visually presented information shortly after hearing or seeing the items
Working memory
Retaining information while simultaneously engaging in another cognitive activity
Success in reading and math depend on this ability
Crucial for word recognition and reading comprehension

26. Disability in Spoken Language
Oral Expression
Word choice
Understanding complex sentence structures
Responding to questions
Mechanical deficits
Syntax, semantics, phonology
Pragmatics
Conversational skills
Nonverbal language

27. Disability in Metacognition
Lack of awareness of strategies and resources needed to perform effectively
Inability to monitor, evaluate, and adjust performance to ensure successful task completion

28. Disability in Attributions
Students may attribute success to situations beyond their control such as luck rather than to their own efforts
Chronic failure makes success seem unattainable
Learned helplessness (Seligman,1992)
Passive learners
Deficits in strategic learning behaviors

29. Situational Problems Social and Emotional Attention and Hyperactivity
Lower self-esteem, poor self-concept, social imperceptiveness, and peer rejection
Attention and Hyperactivity
Difficulty staying on task, completing assignments, and following directions

30. Assessment Norm-referenced Criterion-referenced Curriculum based
Portfolio

31. Figure 6.5 Educational Placements of Students with Learning Disabilities

32. Instructional Approaches
Cognitive Training
Self Instruction
Mnemonic Strategies
Direct Instruction
Skill training
Task analysis
Learning Strategies
Strategies Intervention Model (SIM)

33. Teaching Suggestions Highly structured environment Clear expectations
Positive reinforcement of appropriate social skills
Opportunity for success
Supportive atmosphere
Safety from embarrassment

34. A Child at Risk (Gargiulo & Kilgo, 2001)
Maternal alcohol and drug abuse
Home environment lacking in adequate stimulation
Chronic poverty
Oxygen deprivation
Accidents and head trauma
Inadequate maternal and infant nutrition
Prematurity
Rh incompatibility
Low birth weight
Prolonged or unusual delivery

35. Preschool Curriculum Models
Developmental/cognitive model
Behavioral curriculum model
Functional curriculum model
Combination approach

36. Transition Planning Smith et al. (1993)
Preparation for high school content classes
Preparation for high school exiting tests
Counseling for daily crises
Preparation for independent living
Preparation for postsecondary training
Preparation for employment or military service

37. Post-secondary Accommodations (Section 504 of PL 93-112)
Adjustment in Evaluation Procedures
Extra time on exams
Distraction free setting
Oral examinations
Modifications in Program Requirements
Waiving or substituting courses
Decreasing academic load
Auxiliary Aid Provisions
Tape recording lectures, note takers
Assistive technology (screen readers, speech to text)

38. Technology in the Classroom
Start with curriculum, not the technology
Use as an instructional tool: not a toy
Provides guided practice and immediate feedback
Customize technology to the student’s needs
Use to enrich and extend the curriculum
Provide opportunity and encouragement to practice using technology to empower and achieve greater levels of independence

39. Trends, Issues, and Controversies
The full inclusion movement verses a continuum of services model
Goals 2000, Educate America Act, 1994 has created trends for higher graduation standards as well as greater teacher accountability for student performance
1997 IDEA inclusion of students with disabilities in state and district-wide assessments
Impact of the reauthorization of IDEA in 2004