1. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 1 Lecture #42 OUTLINE IC technology MOSFET fabrication process CMOS latch-up Reading: Chapter 4 Die photo of Intel Penryn processor (Intel®Core TM 2 family) courtesy of Chipworks Cross-sectional SEM view of AMD Athlon 64 x2 processor Note: HW#14 was updated this morning. (There are only 4 problems!)

2. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 2 “Planar” fabrication process: Simultaneous fabrication of many “chips” on a wafer, each comprising an integrated circuit (e.g. a microprocessor or memory chip) containing millions or billions of transistors Method: Sequentially lay down and pattern thin films of semiconductors, metals and insulators. Materials used in a basic CMOS integrated circuit: Si substrate – selectively doped in various regions SiO 2 insulator Polycrystalline silicon – used for the gate electrodes Metal contacts and wiring 300mm Si wafer Integrated Circuit Technology

3. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 3 Formation of Insulating Films The favored insulator is pure silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ). A SiO 2 film can be formed by one of two methods: 1.Oxidation of Si at high temperature in O 2 or steam ambient 2.Deposition of a silicon dioxide film ASM A412 batch oxidation furnace Applied Materials low- pressure chemical-vapor deposition (CVD) chamber

4. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 4 Patterning the Layers Lithography refers to the process of transferring a pattern to the surface of the wafer Equipment, materials, and processes needed: A mask (for each layer to be patterned) with the desired pattern A light-sensitive material (called photoresist) covering the wafer so as to receive the pattern A light source and method of projecting the image of the mask onto the photoresist (“printer” or “projection stepper” or “projection scanner”) A method of “developing” the photoresist, that is selectively removing it from the regions where it was exposed Planar processing consists of a sequence of additive and subtractive steps with lateral patterning oxidation deposition ion implantation etchinglithography

5. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 5 In order to transfer the photoresist pattern to an underlying film, we need a “subtractive” process that removes the film, ideally with minimal change in the pattern and with minimal removal of the underlying material(s)  Selective etch processes (using plasma or aqueous chemistry) have been developed for most IC materials Jargon for this entire sequence of process steps: “pattern using XX mask” photoresist SiO 2 First: pattern photoresist Si We have exposed mask pattern, and developed the resist etch stops on silicon (“selective etchant”) oxide etchant … photoresist is resistant. Next: Etch oxide only resist is attacked Last: strip resist Pattern Transfer by Etching

6. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 6 Oxidation or thin-film deposition optical mask optional additional process step(s) photoresist coatingphotoresist removal (ashing) spin, rinse, dry etch photoresist exposure The Photo-Lithographic Process photoresist develop

7. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 7 Suppose we have a wafer of Si which is p-type and we want to change the surface to n-type. The way in which this is done is by ion implantation. Dopant ions are shot out of an “ion gun” called an ion implanter, into the surface of the wafer. Typical implant energies are in the range 1-200 keV. After the ion implantation, the wafers are heated to a high temperature (>1000 o C). This “annealing” step heals the damage and causes the implanted dopant atoms to move into substitutional lattice sites. Adding Dopants into Si Eaton HE3 High-Energy Implanter, showing the ion beam hitting the end-station

8. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 8 N-channel MOSFET Schematic Cross-Sectional View Layout (Top View) 4 lithography steps are required: 1. active area 2. gate electrode 3. contacts 4. metal interconnects channel width, W gate length, L g

9. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 9 CMOS Technology Both n-channel and p-channel MOSFETs are fabricated on the same chip (V Tp = -V Tn ) Primary advantage: –Lower average power dissipation Ideally, in steady state either the NMOS or PMOS device is off, so there is no DC current path between V DD & GND Disadvantages: –More complex (expensive) process –Latch-up problem

10. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 10 p-substrate N D n-well N D n-well N A p-well Single-well technology n-well must be deep enough to avoid vertical punch-through Need p-regions (for NMOS) and n-regions (for PMOS) on the wafer surface, e.g.: NANA Twin-well technology Wells must be deep enough to avoid vertical punch-through p- or n-substrate (lightly doped)

11. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 11 Modern CMOS Fabrication Process A series of lithography, etch, and fill steps are used to create silicon mesas isolated by silicon-dioxide Lithography and implant steps are used to form the NMOS and PMOS wells and to set the channel doping levels

12. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 12 The thin gate dielectric layer is formed Poly-Si is deposited and patterned to form gate electrodes Lithography and implantation are used to form NLDD and PLDD regions

13. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 13 A series of steps is used to form the deep source / drain regions as well as body contacts A series of steps is used to encapsulate the devices and form metal interconnections between them.

14. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 14 Intel’s 65 nm CMOS Technology L g = 35 nm T ox = 1.2 nm Strained Si channel NMOS: tensile capping layer PMOS: epitaxial Si 1-x Ge x embedded in S/D NMOSFET PMOSFET

15. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 15 CMOS Inverter n+n+ p+p+ p+p+ n+n+ n+n+ p+p+ n-well p-Si V in V out V DD V in V out V DD Equivalent circuit: V SS SiO 2

16. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 16 Coupled parasitic npn and pnp bipolar transistors: If either BJT enters the active mode, the SCR will enter into the forward conducting mode (large current flowing between V DD and GND) if  npn  pnp > 1 => circuit burnout! Latch-up is triggered by a transient increase in current, caused by transient currents (ionizing radiation, impact ionization, etc.) voltage transients e.g. negative voltage spikes which forward-bias the pn junction momentarily CMOS Latchup

17. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 17 How to Prevent CMOS Latchup (a) n-well p epitaxial layer p + -substrate R sub npn n n+n+ p-sub R wel l pnp “retrograde well” (b) 1. Reduce minority-carrier lifetimes in well/substrate 2. Use highly doped substrate or wells:

18. Spring 2007EE130 Lecture 42, Slide 18 IC Technology Trends Continued scaling of MOSFETs toward 10 nm L g : –CMOSFETs with gate lengths below 20 nm have already been demonstrated by leading semiconductor manufacturers.  The most advanced transistor designs are based on UC-Berkeley research (Prof’s Hu, King Liu, Bokor). Increasing # of levels of wiring (Cu interconnects) Up to 8 levels of metal are used in ICs today. Photo from IBM Microelectronics Gallery: Colorized scanning-electron micrograph of the copper interconnect layers, after removal of the insulating layers by a chemical etch Increasing variety of materials –high-k gate dielectric, metal gate, low-k intermetal dielectrics, etc.