1. Transformations in South Africa

2.  the Mfecane took place between 1795 and 1870

3.  a series of wars among the Nguni and Sotho- speaking peoples of Southern Africa  Sotho (in southern Africa from about 400s)  Nguni (migrated southwards over centuries, with large herds of Nguni cattle, probably entering what is now South Africa around 2000 years ago in sporadic settlement, followed by larger waves of migration around 1400 AD.)

5.  The other group to contribute to the Mfecane were the Voortrekkers  trekked from the Cape in search of land and autonomy in the interior  waged wars with smaller groups in the interior  forced these groups to seek refuge in other communities  “empty land” theory

6.  set in motion a chain-reaction of bloodshed and devastation that had catastrophic repercussions

7.  Nguni-speaking peoples  lived in south-east Africa between the mountains and the sea  referred to these wars as the Mfecane, meaning “crushing”, in the sense of large-scale destruction, mainly because they invariably got the upper hand  Sotho-speaking peoples,  who lived on the Highveld  called it the Difaqane or Lifaqane (“L‘”is pronounced “D” in Sotho), meaning “forced migration” or “scattering”.

8.  for some years, there was wide-ranging chaos  Sotho-speakers competed with Nguni groups and with one another for dwindling herds of cattle and stores of grain.  old communities were abandoned, and as ancient chiefdoms vanished, their traditions went with them  new chiefdoms were consolidated and in turn disintegrated

9.  affected the lives of people from the Cape frontier to central East Africa  its effects were felt well into the 1870s

10.  from notes of a few missionaries,  from officials and travellers who were eyewitnesses  from oral sources of many of the peoples involved  later written down by historians such as A T Bryant and G M Theal  these versions flawed - alien to the societies described but do give an idea

11.  These population upheavals, hardships, and political amalgamations are usually attributed to Shaka the warrior-king's rise to power in 1816, and the rapid expansion of the Zulu Empire thereafter.  But.... the origins of the Mfecane, in fact, went further back to the 18th century, before Shaka's accession.

12.  competition to control the growing trade in southern Africa  trade in the region was first limited to the Mozambican coast in Sofala and Inhambane ports  before the 1600 and 1700s, the powerful Monomotapa or Great Zimbabwe kingdom dominated this trade  collapsed in the 1600s and new and smaller kingdoms took its place

14.  Portuguese introduced Maize as a staple food in southern Africa  greater harvest of food than sorghum and millet  became a desired item  growth of the population in one region increased competition  for grazing land  for settlement for growing numbers of people

15.  Trade in ivory and slavery thus also contributed indirectly to the mfecane  Trade in ivory was highly profitable and many Nguni kingdoms in the region competed to control this trade

16.  abolition of the slave trade in 1807 -> increase in demand for agricultural products (legitimate trade).  food products (mainly cattle meat) were needed by growing numbers of whaling ships visiting the Indian Ocean.  so kingdoms in this region raided cattle from weaker neighbouring societies  this way they would have enough cattle for themselves and more to sell to whaling ships.

17.  Central to this development was the organisation of young people into the age regiments called the amabutho in Zulu or mephato in Sotho, used for hunting and the exportation of ivory to Delagoa Bay.  These age regiments were used for raiding cattle from other societies and for waging war.  amabutho made it easy for the leaders to have more power and social control and allowed them to build powerful kingdoms

18.  Towards the end of the eighteenth century, several quite separate epicentres of political instability were emerging in south-east Africa  owing to the expansion this trade and other goods traded through Portuguese-owned Delagoa Bay  This increased the wealth of neighbouring chiefdoms, but led to intense competition among them