1. Temperature, pressure, and winds

2. Review of last lecture Earth’s energy balance at the top of the atmosphere and at the surface. What percentage of solar energy is absorbed by the surface? Earth’s energy balance at the top of the atmosphere and at the surface. What percentage of solar energy is absorbed by the surface? Atmospheric influences on radiation (3 ways) Atmospheric influences on radiation (3 ways) What cause the greenhouse effect? What are the major greenhouse gases? Why is methane important? What cause the greenhouse effect? What are the major greenhouse gases? Why is methane important? The three types of atmospheric scattering. What causes the blue sky? Why causes the reddish-orange sunsets? The three types of atmospheric scattering. What causes the blue sky? Why causes the reddish-orange sunsets?

3. Atmospheric Thickness No defined top to the atmosphere No defined top to the atmosphere The atmosphere is very shallow—and is less than 2% of the Earth’s thickness The atmosphere is very shallow—and is less than 2% of the Earth’s thickness Over 90% of atmosphere in the lowest 16km & is where nearly all weather occurs

4. Temperature Basics Temperature – measure of average kinetic energy (motion) of individual molecules in matter Temperature – measure of average kinetic energy (motion) of individual molecules in matter Three temperature scales (units): Kelvin (K), Celsius (C), Fahrenheit (F) Three temperature scales (units): Kelvin (K), Celsius (C), Fahrenheit (F) All scales are relative All scales are relative degrees F = 9 ⁄ 5 degrees C + 32 degrees F = 9 ⁄ 5 degrees C + 32 degrees K = degrees C + 273.15 degrees K = degrees C + 273.15

5. Temperature Layers Due to surface heating (Longwave, Latent heat, Sensible heat) Due to ozone absorption of sunlight Due to Solar winds, Cosmic rays Decreasing rate w/ height (Lapse rate): 6.5 o C/km

6. Space shuttle Endeavour straddles mesosphere and stratosphere

7. Pressure Essentials Pressure – force exerted/unit area (weight above you) Pressure – force exerted/unit area (weight above you) units - Pascals (Pa) or millibars (mb) (1 mb = 100 Pa) units - Pascals (Pa) or millibars (mb) (1 mb = 100 Pa) Average surface pressure over globe: 1013.2 mb. Average surface pressure over globe: 1013.2 mb. Atmosphere is mixture of gases -> partial pressure. Atmosphere is mixture of gases -> partial pressure. Dalton’s Law: sum of partial pressures equals total pressure Dalton’s Law: sum of partial pressures equals total pressure Pressure gradient (pressure difference between two locations/distance) gives rise to a force (pressure gradient force), which sets the air in motion. Pressure gradient (pressure difference between two locations/distance) gives rise to a force (pressure gradient force), which sets the air in motion.

8. The Equation of State (Ideal Gas Law) Describes relationships between pressure, temperature, and density (Start w/ molecular movement in sealed container  Pressure proportional to rate of collisions between molecules and walls). At constant temperatures, an increase in air density will cause a pressure increase (Add more molecules  increase density  increase rate of collisions  raise pressure) Under constant density, an increase in temperature will lead to an increase in pressure ( Raise temperature  increase speed of molecules  increase rate of collisions  raise pressure) Pressure = density x temperature x 287 J kg -1 K -1 [ p = ρ T R ]

9.  Pressure decreases with height Because downward gravity force is balanced by vertical pressure gradient force (called hydrostatic equilibrium) Δ p/ Δ z = ρ g  Pressure decreases non-linearly w/ height (Because air is compressible, so denser near the surface) Vertical pressure distribution: Hydrostatic equilibrium ρgρgρgρg Δ p/ Δ z

10. Movie time Weather: Wind Weather: Wind

11. Horizontal pressure distribution and horizontal pressure gradient Pressure maps depict isobars, lines of equal pressure Through analysis of isobaric charts, pressure gradients are apparent Steep pressure gradients are indicated by closely spaced isobars Typically only small gradients exist across large spatial scales (4% variation at continental scale), smaller than vertical gradients

12. Forces Affecting the Speed and Direction of the Wind Horizontal pressure gradients responsible for wind generation Horizontal pressure gradients responsible for wind generation Three factors affect wind speed and/or direction (velocity): Three factors affect wind speed and/or direction (velocity): 1. Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) 2. Coriolis Effect (CE) 3. Friction Force (FF)

13. 1. Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) pressure gradient: high pressure  low pressure pressure differences exits due to unequal heating of Earth’s surface spacing between isobars indicates intensity of gradient flow is perpendicular to isobars

14. 2. The Coriolis Effect objects in the atmosphere are influenced by the Earth ’ s rotation objects in the atmosphere are influenced by the Earth ’ s rotation Rotation of Earth is counter-clockwise looking down from N. Pole. Rotation of Earth is counter-clockwise looking down from N. Pole. results in an ‘ apparent ’ deflection (relative to surface) results in an ‘ apparent ’ deflection (relative to surface) deflection to the right in Northern Hemisphere (left in S. Hemisphere) deflection to the right in Northern Hemisphere (left in S. Hemisphere) Greatest at the poles, 0 at the equator Greatest at the poles, 0 at the equator Increases with speed of moving object and distance Increases with speed of moving object and distance CE changes direction not speed CE changes direction not speed

15. Winds in the upper air: Geostrophic Balance Now the wind speed/direction is simply a balance between the PGF and CE. This is called GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE. Upper air moving from areas of higher to areas of lower pressure undergo Coriolis deflection Air will eventually flow parallel to height contours as the pressure gradient force balances with the Coriolis force Friction is very small in the upper air:

16. Winds near the surface Friction slows down wind speed and reduces Coriolis deflection Friction slows down wind speed and reduces Coriolis deflection Friction is important for air within ~1.5 km of the surface (the so- called planetary boundary layer). It varies with surface texture, wind speed, time of day/year and atmospheric conditions. Friction above 1.5 km is often small (often called the free atmosphere), except over regions with storms and gravity waves. Friction is important for air within ~1.5 km of the surface (the so- called planetary boundary layer). It varies with surface texture, wind speed, time of day/year and atmospheric conditions. Friction above 1.5 km is often small (often called the free atmosphere), except over regions with storms and gravity waves. The third term (friction) must be considered:

17. Effect of frictional force Upper air w/out Friction (geostrophic balance) Near surface w/ Friction Counterclockwise in NH (opposite in SH)characterized by ascending/diverging air which cools to form clouds/precipitation Clockwise airflow in NH (opposite in SH) Characterized by descending/converging air which warms creating clear skies

18. Upper air: isobars usually not closed off Troughs (low pressure areas) Troughs (low pressure areas) Ridges (high pressure areas) Ridges (high pressure areas) Near surface: isobars usually closed off due to surface friction Cyclones (Low pressure areas) Cyclones (Low pressure areas) Anticyclones (High pressure areas) Anticyclones (High pressure areas) Cyclones, Anticyclones, Troughs and Ridges

19. Summary Thickness of the atmosphere: less than 2% of Earth’s thickness Thickness of the atmosphere: less than 2% of Earth’s thickness Definition of temperature. 3 units. Definition of temperature. 3 units. Four layers of the atmosphere, what separate them? Four layers of the atmosphere, what separate them? Definition of pressure and its unit. Definition of pressure and its unit. Definition of pressure gradient. Pressure gradient sets the air in motion. Definition of pressure gradient. Pressure gradient sets the air in motion. Equation of state (Relationship between P, ρ, and T) Equation of state (Relationship between P, ρ, and T) Vertical Pressure Distribution. How does pressure change with height? What is the hydrostatic equilibrium? Vertical Pressure Distribution. How does pressure change with height? What is the hydrostatic equilibrium?

20. Summary (cont.) Know 3 Forces that affect wind speed /direction Know 3 Forces that affect wind speed /direction Especially work on Coriolis force, as this is the hardest to understand. Which direction is air deflected to by Coriolis force? Especially work on Coriolis force, as this is the hardest to understand. Which direction is air deflected to by Coriolis force? What is the geostrophic balance? At which level is it valid? Difference between upper level and surface winds What is the geostrophic balance? At which level is it valid? Difference between upper level and surface winds Does cyclones correspond to high or low surface pressure? Is the air moving clockwise or counter- clockwise around them? How about anticyclones? Does cyclones correspond to high or low surface pressure? Is the air moving clockwise or counter- clockwise around them? How about anticyclones? What are troughs and ridges? What are troughs and ridges?