1. NATS 101 Lecture 31 Climate and Climate Change

2. Climate Overview Climate classified largely in terms of –Temperature & Precipitation (vs. evaporation)

3. Koppen Climate Classification Groups A. Topical Moist: no winter B. Dry: Potential evapotranspiration > precipitation C. Moist Mid-Latitude with mild winter D. Moist Mid Latitude with severe winter E. Polar: cold, T<10 o C H. Highland Global map

4. More classification detail Af Tropical rain forest Am Tropical monsoon Aw Tropical wet and dry BW Arid desert BS Semi-arid Cfa Humid subtropical Cfb Cfc Marine Cs Mediterranean dry summer Cw Dry winter Dfa humid continental long hot summer Dfb humid continental long cool summer Dfc subpolar cool short summer Dw Dry winter ET polar tundra EF Polar ice cap H Highland

5. What is Climate CHANGE? Climate change - A significant shift in the mean state and event frequency of the atmosphere. Climate change is a normal component of the Earth’s natural variability. Climate change occurs on all time and space scales. A plethora of evidence exists that indicates the climate of the Earth has changed.

6. Determining the Past Climate Paleoclimatology - the study of past climates. Past 100-200 years (weather observations) Must use indirect climate measures, proxies, to examine further into the past. Some proxies: - Tree rings (1,000+ years before present BP) - Trapped pollen (10,000+ years BP) - Glacial ice cores (100,000+ years BP) - Ocean sediment cores (1 Million+ years BP) - Geology (1 Billion+ years BP)

7. Ice Core from Vostok, Antarctica During last ice age (>18,000 years ago) Temps 6 o C colder CO 2 levels 30% lower CH 4 levels 50% lower H 2 O levels were lower than current interglacial. What caused what?

8. Most Recent Ice Age Extend of continental glaciers 18,000 years BP. Sea level was 100-125 m lower than present. Bering land bridge between Siberia and Alaska. Aguado and Burt, Fig 16-4

9. SST 18,000 years BP Much cooler over the North Atlantic Ocean. Ocean currents were undoubtedly different. 18,000 BPToday Ahrens, Fig 13.2

10. Temperatures Since Last Ice Age Rapid warming occurred at end of Younger-Dryas period. Ice cores indicate that Ice Age conditions ended in 3 years! Glacial retreat Rapid melt Glacial advance Apline advance Ahrens, Fig 13.3

11. Climate Changes Affect Mankind Temperatures for eastern Europe during the last 1200 years. Viking settlements lost in Greenland Viking colonization in Greenland Ahrens, Fig 13.4

12. Evidence of Climate Change Surface temperatures based on meteorological observations. Is the warming of the past century due to human activities? 0.6 o C warming past century Ahrens, Fig 13.5

13. Controversial “Hockey Stick”

14. Causes of Climate Change Atmospheric Composition - Anything that changes the radiative properties of the atmosphere (volcanic aerosols, carbon dioxide). Astronomical - Anything that alters the amount or distribution of solar energy intercepted by the Earth (solar variations, orbital variations). Earth’s Surface - Anything that alters the flow of energy at the Earth's surface or changes its distribution (desertification, continental drift).

15. Causes of Climate Change Astronomical Surface Composition

16. Milankovitch Theory of Ice Ages Attempts to explain ice ages by variations in orbital parameters Three cycles: Eccentricity (100,000 yrs) Tilt (41,000 yrs) Precession (23,000 yrs) Changes the latitudinal and seasonal distributions of solar radiation.

17. Milankovitch Theory of Ice Ages Ice ages occur when there is less radiation in summer to melt snow. Partially agrees with observations, but many questions unanswered. What caused the onset of the first Ice Age?

18. Milankovitch Theory Change in daily solar radiation at top of atmosphere at June solstice Changes as large as ~15% occur

19. Long-Term Climate Change 250 million years ago, the world’s landmasses were joined together and formed a super continent termed Pangea. As today’s continents drifted apart, they moved into different latitude bands. This altered prevailing winds and ocean currents. NA E-A Af SA India NA India Af SA E-A Ant Aus Ant Aus 180 M BPToday Ahrens, Fig 13.6

20. Long-Term Climate Change Circumpolar ocean current formed around Antarctica 40- 55 MY ago once Antarctica and Australia separated. This prevented warm air from warmer latitudes to penetrate into Antarctica. Absence of warm air accelerated growth of the Antarctic ice sheet. http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Climate_Change/Older/Continental_Drift.html

21. Long-Term Climate Change Circumpolar seaway leads to large latitudinal temperature gradient. Circum-equatorial seaway leads to small latitudinal temperature gradient http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Climate_Change/Older/Continental_Drift.html

22. Our changing climate Our climate is changing. In particular, surface temperatures are increasing. => 1998 or 2005 is the warmest year in the past 400 years, and perhaps much longer

23. Global mean temperatures are rising faster with time 150 0.045  0.012 100 0.074  0.018 50 0.128  0.026 25 0.177  0.052 Warmest 12 years: 1998,2005,2003,2002,2004,2006, 2001,1997,1995,1999,1990,2000 Period Rate Years  /decade IPCC From K. Trenberth

24. Our changing climate Arctic is warming faster than most other regions, largely as predicted by climate models This raises questions about ice melt and sea level rise Western US may warm and dry significantly (8 o F in 50- 100 years?)

25. Our changing climate: Key Questions Climate modelers have predicted the Earth’s surface will warm because of manmade greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions So how much of the warming is manmade? How serious are the problems this is creating? What, if anything, can and should we do?

26. WaterVapor60% CarbonDioxide26% O 3 8% CH 4 N 2 0 6% 6% The Natural Greenhouse Effect: clear sky Clouds also have a greenhouse effect Kiehl and Trenberth 1997

27. Our changing climate: Increasing CO 2 concentrations 2 most important greenhouse gases: H 2 O, CO 2 Man is modifying the CO 2 concentrations via burning fossil fuels CO 2 concentrations are higher than any time in the last 400,000 years (NOAA site).NOAA site –Amounts are now beyond the range of natural variations experienced over the past 700,000 years Predictions are for CO 2 concentrations to continue increasing to 1.5 to 3 times present values by 2100 (NOAA site)NOAA site

28. Changing CO 2 concentrations CO 2 concentrations have varied naturally by a factor of 2 over the past few hundred thousand years Fossil fuel burning since the industrial revolution has created a sharp increase in CO 2 concentrations CO 2 concentrations are now higher than at any time in past few hundred thousand years And concentrations are increasing faster with time Last 4 Ice Age cycles: 400,000 years See http://epa.gov/climatechange/science/recentac.html Man made You are here

29. Ice Core from Vostok, Antarctica During last ice age (>18,000 years ago) Temps 6 o C colder CO 2 levels 30% lower CH 4 levels 50% lower H 2 O levels were lower than current interglacial. 130,000 years ago it was a bit warmer than today 50% change in CO2 associated with 8 o C change in temperature 6-8 o C decrease in temperature produced incredibly different climate: Ice Age

30. Data from Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Lab., NOAA. Data prior to 1974 from C. Keeling, Scripps Inst. Oceanogr. Changing atmospheric composition: CO 2 Mauna Loa, Hawaii Changing atmospheric composition: CO 2 Mauna Loa, Hawaii

31. Increasing CO 2 concentrations How high will they go? How warm will it get??? Last 4 Ice Age cycles: 400,000 years See http://epa.gov/climatechange/science/futureac.html Man made You are here Ice age CO 2 range You are going to be here

32. Our changing climate: Can we predict it? Yes, but with uncertainty. Models do seem to be getting better From Hansen, J., Mki. Sato, R. Ruedy, K. Lo, D.W. Lea, and M. Medina-Elizade 2006. Global temperature change. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 103, 14288- 14293, doi:10.1073/pnas.0606 291103.

33. GLOBAL Energy Flow Thru Atmosphere

34. Global Atmo Energy Balance Ahrens, Fig. 2.14 Solar in IR Out In a stable climate, Solar Energy IN = IR Energy OUT

35. Global Atmo Energy Imbalance Ahrens, Fig. 2.14 Solar in Atmosphere IR Out is reduced Increasing GHG concentrations decrease Energy out So Energy IN > Energy OUT and the Earth warms

36. Annual Energy Balance Heat transfer from low latitudes to high latitudes by winds and ocean currents will likely change Differential heating and spinning Earth drive winds and currents This horizontal transfer will likely change as climate changes NHSH Radiative Warming Radiative Cooling Ahrens, Fig. 2.21

37. Mid-Latitude Cyclones mP cP mT Ahrens, Meteorology Today, 5th Ed. Winter storms move tropical air poleward and polar air toward the tropics. Net result is to transport energy poleward

38. Ocean Currents of World Ahrens Fig. 7.24

39. Change in IR Emission to Space Notice that because of Earth’s greenhouse gases, 91% (=64/70) [195/235 = 83%] of the IR emitted to space comes from the atmosphere and only 9% (=6/70) [40/235 = 17%] comes from the surface When GHG’s are added to the atmosphere, the altitude of IR emission to space rises In the troposphere, air temperature decreases with altitude So the temperature of the emission to space decreases So the energy emission to space decreases because the emission energy decreases with decreasing temperature

40. Change in IR Emission to Space BEFORE GHG increase IN=OUTAFTER GHG increase NH SH Ahrens, Fig. 2.21 Altitude Temperature 1. Altitude of IR emission to space rises Altitude of IR emission to space Temperature of IR emission to space 2. Temperature of IR emission to space decreases 3. IR emission to space decreases because of colder emission temperature IR emission to space

41. Change in IR Emission to Space ( cont’d) AFTER GHG increase IN>OUTEventual solution IN=OUT SH Ahrens, Fig. 2.21 Temperature 4. Atmosphere warms until… 5. Temperature of IR emission to space increase to original temperature 6. IR emission to space increases until it matches the original IR emission before GHG increases SH Ahrens, Fig. 2.21 Temperature 1. Altitude of IR emission to space rises 2. Temperature of IR emission to space decreases 3. IR emission to space decreases because of colder emission temperature

42. Complexity of Climate System The climate system involves numerous, interrelated components.

43. Closer Look at Climate System

44. Climate Feedback Mechanisms

45. Positive and Negative Feedbacks Assume that the Earth is warming. - Warming leads to more evaporation from oceans, which increases water vapor in atmosphere. -More water vapor increases absorption of IR, which strengthens the greenhouse effect. -This raises temperatures further, which leads to more evaporation, more water vapor, warming… “Runaway Greenhouse Effect” Positive Feedback Mechanism

46. Positive and Negative Feedbacks Again assume that the Earth is warming. - Suppose as the atmosphere warms and moistens, more low clouds form. - More low clouds reflect more solar radiation, which decreases solar heating at the surface. - This slows the warming, which would counteract a runaway greenhouse effect on Earth. Negative Feedback Mechanism

47. Positive and Negative Feedbacks Atmosphere has a numerous checks and balances that counteract climate changes. All feedback mechanisms operate simultaneously. All feedback mechanisms work in both directions. The dominant effect is difficult to predict. Cause and effect is very difficult to prove at the “beyond a shadow of a doubt” level.

48. Key Points: Climate Change Proxy data are used to infer the past climate. Data show that the Earth’s Climate Has changed in the past Is changing now And will continue to change Key question is determining whether recent changes are due to natural causes or man.

49. Key Points: Climate Change The climate system is very complex. Contains hundreds of feedback mechanisms All feedbacks are not totally understood. Three general climate change mechanisms: Astronomical Atmospheric composition Earth’s surface

50. Assignment for Next Lecture Topic - Anthropogenic Climate Change Reading - Ahrens, p 391-399 Problems - 14.12, 14.15, 14.16, 14.19 NOVA: “What’s Up with the Weather?”