1. Today’s Class: Additives, Pesticides, and Natural Toxicants MAIN POINTS:  What is an “additive”?  How are additives treated legally?  Sources and types of “toxins”  How are natural toxicants treated under the law?

2. ADDITIVES There are about 3,000 approved food additives

4. 1958 Amendments to FD&C (Food Drug and Cosmetic) Act  Regulates any substance..which becomes a component of food, *if* not generally recognized as safe (by experts) or in use prior to Jan 1, 1958.  GRAS = Generally Recognized as Safe  The Act excludes spices, smoke derivatives  GRAS concept, ways to gain GRAS status  Grand-fathered  FDA GRAS-affirmation (Flavors- Flavor Extract Manufacturers Association)  Self-affirmation

5. Other additive requirements  Intentional additive must “work”  Cannot be deceptive or conceal defects  Cannot reduce nutritional value  Cannot substitute for Good Manufacturing Practices  Must have method of analysis

6. The FD&C Act also brought us THE DELANY CLAUSE in any amount” “no additive shall be deemed safe if it is found to induce cancer in humans or animals when ingested in any amount” Many compounds naturally occurring in food cannot meet this test. Remember furfural in bread? Aflatoxins in peanut butter? DELANY reflects a 1958 understanding of carcinogens

7. Types of Food Additives

8. Antioxidants  Lipid oxidation gives rise to rancidity, off flavors, off odors, and free radicals  Anything that can be oxidized (Vit E, C) can serve as antioxidant  Can also exclude oxygen, use oxygen impermeable packaging.  BHA, BHT

9. Preservatives  Salt  Organic acids  Benzoates  Acetic, Citric, Lactic  Sulfur dioxide  Nitrite

10. Other additives  Flavors, “natural flavor” from yeast  Flavor enhancers (MSG), can be “natural”  Acidulants  Sweeteners (ingredient)  Gums, thickeners and stabilizers  Surfactants  Nutrients (vitamins and minerals)  Emulsifiers  Enzymes  Chelators (EDTA) (Metals accelerate degradative reactions)

11. Toxins in Food Mother nature can be... …well, a real “mother.”

12. “Human intake of nature’s pesticides is about 10,000 times higher than human intake of synthetic pesticides that are rodent carcinogens.” -American Council on Science and Health.

13. Three sources of toxins in food  Endogenous toxins  Naturally occurring toxins  Synthetic toxins Risk Assessment = Dose response + Exposure Assessment Dose response: Threshold or no Threshold?

14. Toxicology- Questions for Synthetic Chemicals Risk Assessment = Dose Response + Exposure Assessment Dose response: Threshold or no Threshold? (Relationship to Delany?) Dose Response

15. ENDOGENOUS TOXINS Naturally toxic chemicals in plants  Hemaggultinins – castor and soy beans “ricin”  Cyanogens- cassava, beans  Phytoalexins – potato  Safarole – sassafras, black pepper  Nitrites – celery, dark green vegetables  Cyanide – apricot pits

16. “Solely the dose determines that a thing is … a poison” Parcelis, 16 th century (i.e. “The dose makes the poison.”) Myristicin in carrots is a halluncinogen > 400 mg required *Carrots contain 0.6 ug/kg You need to consume ~ 667 kg (> 1,000 pounds) to reach the effective dose *Mutmeg also contains myristicin, and a few tablespoons can get you high (or sick)

17. NATURALLY OCCURING TOXINS Fungal Toxicants OchratoxinCereal grainsKidney Patulin 50 ppb Apple productsKidney Alimentary toxic alukia Cereal grainsBone marrow 80% fatality ZeraralenoneCorn, wheatHyper-estro- genisms Ergot alkaloids- associated with rye, delusions and hallucinations

18. Aflatoxin – corn and peanuts 15 ppb ok (legally)

19. Marine Toxins FUGU FISH One Fish, Two Fish, Blowfish, Blue Fish Homer à manger du Fugu, un poisson mortel, dans un restaurant japonais. Il ne lui reste plus alors que 24 heures à vivre. Saxitoxin – clams, paralytic shell-fish poisoning, red tide Domoic Acid - muscles

20. Bioaccumulation

21. Animal Testing

23. “Animal foods tested on humans”

24. Chemicals in the environment  Pesticides – act against insects -Organochlorides – persist (DDT) -Organophosphates – degrade  Herbicides – act against weeds  Integrated Pest Management  Use of Pesticides and Herbicides has decreased 50% since 1980

25. Pesticides  300 active ingredient  10,000 uses  1.2 billion pounds  ~ 8 lbs/ person (applied)  $20 billion crops destroyed (w/ pesticides)  Fungicides prevent aflatoxin  Increase yield, decrease crop losses  Regulated by EPA, USDA, FDA Many arguments for and against pesticides -impact of genetic engineering

26. Pesticide Testing (is limited)  No detectable pesticides in 60% of conventional produce

27. Pesticide Testing (is limited)  No detectable pesticides in 60% of conventional produce  Pesticides are detected in 40% of produce

28. Pesticide Testing (is limited)  No detectable pesticides in 60% of conventional produce  Pesticides are detected in 40% of produce  In 39%, detection is at less than one-tenth of tolerance level (which has 100-fold safety factor)  Only 1 % of produce tested has pesticides in excess of tolerance  Wash with warm soapy water

29. Antibiotics and the danger of antibiotic resistance Is agricultural use of antibiotics a significant part of the problem? Antibiotics, 60 years - Bacteria, millions of years

30. Other nasty beasties  Carcinogens in smoked foods  Pyrolysis products  PCBs – chloroacne, headache, numbness

31. “The hypothetical risk posed by food additives is greatly exceeded by the very real risk posed by not eating.” Enjoy your food. -Prof. Don Schaffner, Rutgers University