1. Social Psychology Lecture 9 Attitude change Advertising and fear appeals Jane Clarbour Room PS/B007 email: jc129Tel: (01904-43) 3168

2. Objectives Show an understanding of the role of ‘beliefs’ in attitude change Provide a definition of what is meant by a ‘fear appeal’ Contrast differing models of fear appeals Describe the main beliefs that Protection Motivation Theory considers essential for fear appeals to be effective Discuss why the minimal appeal may be more effective for behavioural change

5. Belief formation Beliefs are formed 3 ways: 1)Through active and direct observation of object – attribute relationships 2)By being given information relating to the object which is accepted 3)Through inferring object attribute relationships

6. Changing beliefs Two ways to change beliefs 1.Active participation Direct observation of new attribute- object relation Problem of perception of relationship 2.Persuasive communication Problem of acceptance of the relationship

7. Attitude change (Fishbein & Azjen, 1975) 2 ways to change attitudes 1.Change current salient beliefs by supplying new belief –Supply new attitude-object relation –Small dogs are snappy –Snappy dogs are guard dogs 2.Change evaluation of the attributes –Snappy dogs are bad –Guard dogs are good

8. Changing behavioural intentions 2 ways to change behavioural intentions 1.Change attitude toward the behaviour Change belief Change evaluation of attribute 2.Change subjective norms –Attack specific normative beliefs –Provide motivation to comply

9. Yale approach Internal processes of persuasion Attention –Source of communication (high/low credibility) Comprehension –Type of message (implicit or explicit) Emotive or rational Acceptance –Latitude of acceptance or rejection

10. Message-learning approach 4 factors that influence persuasion What strengthens and weakens a persuasive message? –Source variables (who) –Message variables (says what) –Medium or channel variables (how) –Target variables (to whom) Who says what by what means and to whom

11. Credibility of source “Propaganda, to be effective, must be believed. To be believed, it must be credible” Hubert Humphrey (U.S. Senator and Vice President, 1911-1978) Credibility is based on 2 main factors: –Expertise –Trustworthiness

12. Message-learning (evidence based) approach to persuasion (Hovland et al., 1953, adapted from Franzoi, 2000) Stage 1 yes Stage 2 yes Stage 3 yes Persuasive message Attention to message? Comprehension of message? Acceptance of message? Attitude change No attitude change

13. Influence of message content Two types of message content 1.Evidence based (Fact/information) 2.Attention grabbing (Vivid story/picture) –Evidence based appeals enhance persuasive messages Evidence enhances persuasion but not all evidence persuades. Evidence based appeals are more persuasive when credible Evidence based appeals increased when combined with imagery

14. At least THREE MILLION people in England suffer from dental fluorosis. The Government's York Review on water fluoridation showed that about THREE QUARTERS OF A MILLION people have dental fluorosis which is "of concern". No studies have ever been done on the psychological damage caused by fluorosed (stained) teeth. A 1998 survey showed that people with defective teeth are more likely to experience social and employment discrimination. Half of the respondents saw unattractive teeth as a sign of poor personal hygiene. International scientists concur that dental fluorosis is a FORESEEABLE event from fluoridating drinking water, and the victims are at increased risk for psychological and behavioural problems and difficulties. This can be the subject of litigation against those who promote and implement water fluoridation. Abstract (Glaser & Jones)

15. "After a handshake, a friendly smile is one of the most important elements in creating a good first impression. However, it's hard to smile if you're self-conscious about teeth that are yellow or stained." (School of Dental Medicine at the University of New York).

16. Emotive persuasion What is a ‘fear appeal’? –Both attention grabbing and evidence based communication –Intention of arousing fear as a means to induce attitude change –Implies some sort of risk –Arouses emotion of fear because of element of risk

17. Emotive persuasion How does it work? –Emotion activates arousal –Motivated to accept information to reduce state arousal

18. Use of fear appeals Commonly used in most health education advertising – focus on: –Vivid language –Personalistic language –Gory pictures –Emotive scenes

19. Three components of fear appeals 1.Fear 2.Threat 3.Efficacy

20. 1. Fear Negatively valenced emotion accompanied by high levels of arousal A motivational state that protects against danger (Cannon, 1915) Elicited by a threat that is perceived to be significant and personally relevant (Easterling & Leventhal, 1989)

21. 2.Threat An external stimulus variable Real –If person holds cognition that threat is present then that person is perceiving a real threat Role of perceived severity –Belief that threat is severe –Belief of chances of experiencing the threat

22. 3.Efficacy Two types of efficacy –Response efficacy How effective is the information to stop risk –Self efficacy How capable is self for doing it

23. Outcome variables Two types of outcome variables in fear appeal research: –Message acceptance Measurement of attitude, intention, or behaviour –Defensive avoidance Denial or minimization of the threat

24. Types of theoretical approaches – models of attitude change Drive models (Janis & Hovland, 1953) The parallel process model (Leventhal, 1970) Expectancy values theories –Protection motivation theory (Rogers, 1983) –Subjective expected utility theory (Sutton, 1982)

25. Drive models Some fear arousal need to elicit a motivational drive state – but too much is maladaptive Fear as a drive because it produces the LEARNING of new responses Unpleasant tension caused by fear arousal which motivates individuals to get rid of their fear (Largely rejected due to lack of evidence) Fear can be aroused without attitude change (Rogers, 1983)

26. The parallel process model The two processes are: –Cognitive attempts to control the DANGER –Leads to ADAPTIVE behaviour –Emotional attempts to control the FEAR

27. Protection motivation theory Function of 4 major beliefs 1.That the danger is probable 2.That the danger is serious 3.The recommendations will be effective 4.That they can competently carry out the recommendations

28. Advertising and fear appeals Advertisers remind us that life is full of potential anxieties and dangers –Stress sells products –Anxiety provides compelling reason to buy product

29. Marketing strategy Advertisers don’t create the fear, it has to be based on some kind of reality 1.Address the problem 2.Provide the solution

30. Vivid imagery Vivid imagery makes evidence more persuasive (Gonzales et al, 1988). –Salesmen trained to present information relating to heating lost through holes in walls in graphic and vivid terms increased sales from 15% to 61%. BUT: –Under certain conditions attention grabbing vivid imagery lessens the effectiveness of message content (Frey & Eagly, 1993).

39. Minimal appeal (Janis & Feschbach, 1954) Strong appeals invoke too much tension Minimal appeal is most effective in behavioural change Minimal appeals invoke highest level of conformity to the message –When people feel threat too high, or can’t do anything (no change) –Need to counterbalance threat with knowledge that can do something about it.

40. Summary Message learning approach useful for understanding when and how persuasion occurs –(passive view of persuasion) Cognitive response approach useful for why people change their attitudes –(people as active participants in change process)

41. Conclusions Attitude change involves changing beliefs Traditional fear appeals increase levels of physiological arousal Cognitive appraisal of threat produces arousal which mobilises motivatation to protect oneself from the threat Naïve to suggest that can change people’s attitudes by frightening them

42. Key reading Rogers (1983) Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: A revised theory of protection motivation Hewstone & Stroebe (2001) Chapter 16: Behaviour and health Franzoi (2000) Chapter 6: Persuasion

43. What next….? Lecture 10: Cognitive dissonance theory Essential reading: –Beavois & Joule (1996) A radical dissonance theory. Chapter 7: Misattribution paradigm and rationalisation (pp. 123 – 154) –Cooper & Fazio (1984) A new look at dissonance theory (pp. 230 – 266) –Franzio (2000) Chapter 5: Attitudes (pp. 170-181)