1. Attitudes and Attitude Change
Lecture 6
Attitudes and Attitude Change

2. Outline What is an attitude? Attitudes and behaviour
Definitions
3 categories of evaluative response
Attitude functions
Values
Attitudes and behaviour
Attitude formation and change
Persuasion
Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

3. Definitions of Attitudes
An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related. G. W. Allport (1935)
The intensity of positive or negative affect for or against a psychological object. Thurstone (1946)
An attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor. Eagley & Chaiken (1993)
Attitudes are enduring mental representations of various features of the social or physical world. They are acquired through experience and exert a directive influence on subsequent behavior. Breckler & Wiggins (1989)
An attitude is a predisposition to react in a certain way to an object or experience. Alcock, Carment, & Sadava (1991)

5. Functions of Attitudes (Katz, 1960; Katz & Stotland, 1959)
1. Knowledge:
- organize and simplify people’s experience
2. Instrumental:
- maximize rewards or minimize punishment
3. Ego-defensive:
- protect ourselves from unpleasant realities
4. Value expressive:
- allow the expression of personal values and self-concept

6. Values
Values are principles that guide our lives. They are designed to lead us to our ideal world (Schwartz, 1992)
Transcend specific situations
Guide selection or evaluation of behaviour and events
Ordered by relative importance

7. Value Dimensions (Schwartz, 1992)
Self-transcendence
Openness to change
Self-
Direction
Universalism
Stimulation
Benevolence
Hedonism
Tradition
Achievement
Conformity
Power
Security
Self-enhancement
Conservation

8. Value Dimensions (Hofstede, 1980)
Power Distance
the tendency to see a large social distance between those in the upper part of a social structure and those in the lower part of the social structure.
Control of others’ behaviours
Uncertainty Avoidance
Avoidance of situations where the outcome is uncertain
Security, low risk-taking, state religion
Masculinity-Femininity
The tendency of members of a culture to value activities that are more common among men than women.
“success” vs. “caring for others and quality of life”
Individualism-Collectivism
Tendency to give priority to personal goals even when they conflict with the goals of important groups.

9. Chinese Culture Connection (1987)
CBC
Integration
Human-heartedness
Confucian work dynamism
Moral discipline --
Hofstede
Collectivism
Masculinity --
Power distance (high)
Uncertainty avoidance

10. Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) and Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1985, 1987)
Attitude toward
the behaviour
Behavioural
Intentions
Behaviour
Subjective
Norms
Perceived
Behavioural
Control

11. How are Attitudes Formed?
1. Direct experience
a. with the attitude object
b. with associated object
2. Experience with others
a. classical conditioning
b. instrumental conditioning
c. modelling others’ behavior

12. Who says what to whom under what circumstances?
PERSUASION
The process of getting others to agree with (or change their attitude regarding) an advocated position by means of a rational or an emotional appeal.
Who says what to whom under what circumstances?

13. WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES?
Source (WHO?)
a. Credibility: Are they an expert and are they trustworthy?
b. Physical attractiveness

14. WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES
Message (WHAT?)
a. primacy-recency effects
b. one- vs. two-sided arguments
c. fear arousal

15. WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES?
Five factors are important in any fear appeal:
1.) the magnitude of the unpleasantness of the event
2.) the probability that the negative event will occur if the recommended action is not taken
3.) the perceived effectiveness of the recommended action
4.) the perceived ability to perform the recommended action
5.) how afraid you already are of the topic

16. WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES
Recipient or Target (TO WHOM?)
a) personality traits (self-esteem and intelligence)
b) gender
c) mood

17. WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES?
Context (UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES?)
a. Situational distractions (noise)
b. overheard message

18. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger, 1957)
Types of Cognitions
Irrelevant – two cognitions have nothing to do with each other
Consonant – one cognition follows from, or fits with another
Dissonant – one cognition follows from, or fits with, the opposite of another; discrepant

19. Attitude change following induced compliance (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959)

20. Mean attitudes toward police actions (Cohen, 1962)