1. Hiromasa Ohba, Joetsu University of Education, Japan Naoki Sugino, Ritsumeikan University, Japan Kojiro Shojima, The National Center for University Entrance Examinations, Japan Kenichi Yamakawa, Yasuda Women’s University, Japan Yuko Shimizu, Ritsumeikan University, Japan Michiko Nakano, Waseda University, Japan 2nd Combined Conference of the ALAA-ALANZ, December 2, 2011, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.

2. - One of the interesting topics in second language (L2) acquisition research has been to account for how syntactic knowledge develops over time (Hawkins, 2001). - Why some grammatical properties are acquired earlier than others and why some grammatical properties remain difficult even for advanced L2 learners?

3. This study investigates: (1) the acquisition of relative clause and wh-question constructions in English by native speakers of Japanese. (2) whether Japanese EFL learners are sensitive to the constraints on wh-movement which are not involved in their native language, Japanese, when they construct relative clauses and wh-questions in English which are both generated utilising overt wh-movement.

4. - One of the biggest problems in the field of L2 acquisition is what kind of test and data analysis can tell us a real L2 developmental process. - We analyse the data obtained from a grammaticality judgement test on how adult Japanese EFL learners interpret English relative clause and wh-question constructions, using a new test theory, Latent Rank Theory (LRT) (Shojima, 2008, 2009).

5. - Within the syntactic theory (Chomsky, 1995,1998), overt movement is only allowed when it is motivated by the presence of a strong formal feature to check. - In wh-question and relative clause formation, it is assumed that English and Japanese vary in the feature specifications of functional category C (Complementiser) which determine how their properties are realised.

6. Relative clause formation English: the strong feature [+R] in C drives relative-operator movement, as in (3). Japanese: an adjunct/predication type relation with no operator, and no feature-driven movement is required due to the lack of the operator and the feature [+R], as in (4) (see Takeda, 1999 for details). (3)The book [which i [John bought t i ]] was interesting. (4)[[John-ga katta] hon]-waomosirokatta John-Nom boughtbook-Topinteresting was ‘The book which John bought was interesting.’

7. Wh-question formation English: the strong features [+wh, +Q] in C force wh- operator movement and subject- auxiliary inversion, as in (5). Japanese: a [wh] feature in Japanese is not strong, so that it does not drive wh-operator movement, as in (6), although a [Q] feature has the same property as in English. (5)[What] i are j [you t j reading t i ]? (6) Anata-wa nani-o yonde imasu ka? You-Top what-Acc reading are Q ‘What are you reading?’

8. Constraints on wh-movement (the Subjacency condition) (7) The Complex Noun Phrase (NP) Island Constraint (weak island) *This is the car which i we heard [the news that Toru bought t i ]. *What i does James believe [the fact that Alison saw t i at work]? (8) The Embedded Question Island, Wh-island, Constraint (weak island) *This is the CD which i Peter knows [where Tom bought t i ]. *Which i book did she ask John [when he read t i ]? (9) The Relative Clause Island Constraint (strong island) *This is the bicycle which i the police caught [the man who stole t i ]. *What i does Jane visit [the architect who designed t i for her friend]? (10) The Subject Island Constraint (strong island) *This is the ghost which i [a picture of t i ] frightened the children. *Who i does the teacher believe [a story by t i ] amuses the children? (11) The Adjunct Island Constraint (strong island) *This is the homework which i Ann went to school [before she did t i ]. *Who i did Alison go to work [after she took t i to school]?

9. Tests do not have sufficient “resolution” to continuously evaluate human ability on a continuous scale. 62 pts 61pts 30pts Test scores

10. Latent Rank 1 Latent Rank 2 Latent Rank 5 Test scores Tests are at best capable of ranking test takers into 5 to 20 ranks. Ability to do X1 Ability to do X2 Ability to do X3 Ability to do X4 Ability to do X5

11. Participants: 740 university-level Japanese EFL learners Materials: grammaticality judgment tests Relative clause constructions The boy whom I kicked yesterday broke the window. (wh-operator: 9 items) The picture that you are looking at was painted by Picasso. (complementiser that: 4 items) The friend they lent money to bought a very big house. (null operator: 3 items) *The woman who that is singing on the stage is my wife. (doubly-filled complementiser: 4 items) *The classmate that you don’t like him is very unkind. (resumptive pronoun: 4 items)

12. What did your girlfriend want to talk about? (8 items) *Whose house Sandy’s father is going to build? (no subject-auxiliary inversion: 8 item) Relative cluase and wh-question constructions violating the subjacency condition (12) Extraction from complex NP a. *This is the car which we heard the news that Toru bought. b. *Which car did he believe the claim that John stole? (13) Extraction from embedded question, wh-island a. *This is the CD which Peter knows where Tom bought. b. *Which book did she ask John when he read?

13. (14) Extraction from relative clause a. *This is the bicycle which the police caught the man who stole. b. *What did he interview the teacher who wrote? (15) Extraction from sentential subject a. *This is the ghost which a picture of frightened the children. b. *What did a discussion of occur during the meeting? (16) Extraction from adjunct a. *This is the homework which Ann went to school before she did. b. *Who did the earthquake occur while you were talking with?

14. Procedure: judgments made on a 5-point scale (1-5) converted into 1-4 points if ungrammatical if grammatical Converted score Raw score Converted score 0 point ← 5 (definitely possible) →4 points 1 point ← 4 (probably possible) → 3 points 2 points ← 3 (not sure) → 2 points 3 points ← 2 (probably impossible) → 1 point 4 points ← 1 (definitely impossible) → 0 point

15. - The learners were categorised into 10 latent ranks. - With scores above 2.50

16. Item Reference Profile (IRP) NoTypes of RC or WHSentences usedMeanSDRank 1Rank 2Rank 3Rank 4Rank 5Rank 6Rank 7Rank 8Rank 9Rank 10 H24WH (question)What did your mother want to talk about?3.2881.1843.0223.1093.2283.3333.3853.3873.3773.3833.4063.428 H14WH (question)What did you do for your son last week?3.1681.2542.9222.9723.0533.1413.2023.2283.2443.2863.3443.387 H28WH (question)When did he go to London to study English?3.0851.3372.8882.9402.9993.0513.0893.1213.1613.2063.2443.269 O43RC (null)The house you can see on the corner was built ten years ago.3.1281.3132.6852.7512.8572.9963.1433.2673.3493.3983.4303.458 O37RC (wh-operator)The job which I wanted to apply for was very popular.3.1241.2272.6642.7222.8222.9533.0883.2113.3193.4093.4843.545 H10*WH (sentential subject)Who(m) did that she went out with make him sad?2.8071.1372.5222.5662.6172.6652.7062.7612.8583.0033.1563.263 H21*WH (sub-aux inversion)Who your favorite movie stars are?2.7671.4312.6002.6262.6832.7562.8122.8332.8292.8282.8502.886 H33*WH (relative clause)What did they visit a shop which sold?2.6071.2312.5762.5922.6052.6062.5902.5702.5662.5932.6422.688 O29RC (wh-operator)The woman who helped me with my homework is Hanae.3.1391.3572.4572.5542.7222.9443.1723.3523.4673.5353.5913.647 O12RC (that)The picture that he is looking at was painted by Picasso.3.0181.3882.4982.6062.7602.9203.0493.1443.2183.2863.3553.418 O07*RC (relative clause)This is the soup which Mari visited a restaurant which served.2.9531.2302.4992.5402.6092.7132.8452.9883.1313.2693.3893.476 H12WH (question)Why was the man surprised to read a letter?2.7891.4202.4772.5312.6252.7362.8252.8752.9122.9593.0153.061 H27RC (wh-operator)The boy who(m) I met yesterday broke the car.2.6641.5762.4792.5252.5722.6072.6282.6542.7142.8002.8712.902 H07*WH (sub-aux inversion)Where your friend got such a great idea?2.6941.4112.4742.5132.5942.6922.7602.7752.7612.7622.7952.844 O33RC (wh-operator)The man who(m) I employed as my assistant works hard.3.0381.2882.4622.4962.5952.7662.9703.1643.3253.4443.5243.578 H04*WH (relative clause)What did he interview the teacher who wrote?2.7121.2242.4662.4852.5252.5812.6432.7142.7972.8912.9823.054 O06RC (null)The magazine they are always talking about is very useful.2.7511.5432.0232.0962.2672.5312.8123.0273.1493.2043.2333.259 O02RC (that)The car that you can see over there caused this accident.2.6921.4772.2622.3052.3942.5232.6602.7742.8652.9493.0323.101 O25*RC (resumptive pro)The classmate that you don’t like him is very unkind.2.6881.5062.1792.2372.3362.4612.5812.6952.8292.9893.1493.279 O04*RC (doubly-filled comp)The woman who that is singing on the stage is my aunt.2.6851.5582.2682.3042.3642.4572.5612.6552.7632.9173.0993.257 O20RC (that)The student that has written this letter must be crazy.2.5871.5232.1572.1852.2562.3692.5072.6592.8032.9072.9713.017 O31*RC (resumptive pro)The friend that I lent the book to her studied very hard.2.6941.4742.1202.1632.2372.3452.4882.6712.8903.1143.3043.437 O44*RC (sentential subject)This is the meeting which that Taro attended shocked his parents.2.7391.2432.3592.3632.3692.3922.4662.6192.8403.0763.2723.405 O18*RC (resumptive pro)The town that my mother came from it is far from here.2.6181.4652.1712.1882.2292.2992.3912.5172.6992.9293.1563.329 H25*WH (sub-aux inversion)Whose car your father is going to drive?2.4911.3982.3342.3442.3672.4112.4692.5292.5862.6332.6602.668 H11*WH (sub-aux inversion)Which city you believe that they attacked?2.5611.3472.3252.3492.3762.4062.4472.5142.6202.7552.8842.972 H35*WH (sub-aux inversion)Which medal it is difficult for him to win?2.4561.4412.1722.2022.2622.3492.4382.5132.5842.6572.7182.756 O03*RC (sentential subject)This is the ghost which a picture of frightened the children.2.4581.4811.9021.9582.0722.2262.3722.4892.6072.7612.9393.090 O40*RC (adjunct island)This is the homework which Ann went to school before she did.2.4111.4382.0602.0432.0372.0662.1592.3182.5152.7152.8933.026 O27RC (wh-operator)The girl for whom I have bought a computer is my sister.2.3391.5941.8121.8631.9532.0682.1832.3092.4762.6832.8793.015 O39*RC (doubly-filled comp)The dogs which that I gave the milk to were very small.2.4491.4692.2422.2172.2002.2112.2542.3252.4312.5882.7742.931 O14RC (wh-operator)The boy to whom I talked yesterday seemed very nervous2.2721.6001.7911.8471.9402.0492.1472.2552.4062.5832.7442.859 O08*RC (doubly-filled comp)The woman whom that we talked with was our teacher.2.4201.5382.2762.2572.2402.2482.2882.3512.4382.5452.6502.729 H03*WH (sub-aux inversion)Why she was worried about her daughter?2.2981.6482.0912.0712.0622.0802.1362.2392.3812.5332.6522.725 O10RC (wh-operator)The girl whose handbag was stolen is suffering from shock.2.3171.5682.0162.0392.0922.1822.2902.3922.4692.5192.5542.589 O21*RC (adjunct island)This is the girl who(m) the bell rang while I was thinking of.2.3211.4362.0672.0922.1232.1642.2212.2972.3892.4962.6002.678 O11*RC (doubly-filled comp)The glasses which that Judy broke were very expensive.2.3081.5212.2732.2392.1702.0852.0252.0342.1392.3362.5722.769 H29*WH (sentential subject)What did a discussion of occur during the meeting?2.2411.2792.0802.1042.1242.1362.1472.1772.2432.3512.4682.557 H01WH (question)Whose books did you borrow yesterday?2.4561.5152.3962.4142.4462.4912.5342.5502.5292.4812.4292.388 H06WH (question)Who came to see your father yesterday?2.3631.6042.3312.3432.3592.3632.3402.3152.3272.3832.4372.456 H32WH (question)What books is it necessary for you to read?2.1231.4222.1402.1352.1262.1132.1052.1132.1292.1362.1252.107 O16RC (wh-operator)The man used a word whose meaning I don’t know at all.2.2291.5502.0422.0712.1092.1532.1962.2322.2692.3172.3762.439 O23RC (that)The student that you gave a present to looked very happy.2.1511.6352.0332.0972.1732.2432.2962.3212.2912.1992.0862.010 H08*WH (embedded question)Which book did she ask John when he read?2.2481.4092.2912.2782.2362.1762.1362.1522.2202.3002.3462.348 H15*WH (complex NP)Who(m) did they know the fact that David hit?2.0851.3902.0402.0632.0862.0982.099 2.1082.1182.1142.097 H26*WH (adjunct island)Who(m) did a fire occur while you were talking with?2.1731.2832.1062.0842.0762.0922.1212.1462.1742.2242.2902.342 O15*RC (embedded question)This is the house which Peter knows when Tom bought.2.1551.4242.1842.1832.1802.1662.1362.0962.0632.0672.1202.197 O19*RC (complex NP)This is the boy who(m) Jack described the way that Bill hit.2.2381.3362.1412.1372.134 2.1502.1862.2362.2952.3682.446 O32*RC (embedded question)This is the story which Kyoko wondered who believed.2.3211.4762.312 2.2862.2582.2652.3032.3352.3482.3632.387 H36*WH (embedded question)What did you wonder who would believe?2.0631.4211.9891.9972.0042.0092.0182.0342.0632.1082.1662.218 H17*WH (sub-aux inversion)What you and your son looked at?2.0901.5951.8091.8261.8851.9772.0662.1412.2202.3042.3682.399 H34*WH (complex NP)Which car did he believe the claim that John stole?2.0351.3201.9911.9901.9911.9881.9801.9792.0062.0642.1312.180 H30*WH (sub-aux inversion)What you and your friend wanted to do?2.0081.5521.8611.8621.8731.9091.9762.0572.1262.1632.1712.166 O28*RC (complex NP)This is the car which we heard the news that Toru bought.2.0581.4941.9941.9561.9051.8551.8291.8531.9492.1172.3112.468 O41*RC (resumptive pro)The building that it stands near the lake is our school.1.9441.6721.6251.6071.6081.6421.7081.8101.9642.1692.3892.567 O36*RC (relative clause)This is the book which John interviewed the man who criticized1.8181.4711.7471.7361.7121.6831.6671.6891.7571.8681.9982.103 H19WH (question)Who(m) does she know that Mary loved?1.7741.4351.7851.7831.7871.7991.8101.8131.7991.7661.7281.702 H13RC (wh-operator)The girl from whom I received a letter is pretty.1.2961.3591.4061.3881.3721.3541.3211.2681.2181.1891.1791.176 O35RC (null)The friend they lent money to bought a very big house.1.6631.6331.4121.4751.5621.6551.7481.8311.8751.8501.7741.693 H16*WH (adjunct island)Which car did they cross the street when John stopped?1.5011.3731.4991.5051.5041.4891.4721.4781.5111.5391.5381.513 Table 1 Results

17. Rank 1 [R43] RC (null): The house you can see on the corner was built ten years ago. [R37] RC (wh-operator): The job which I wanted to apply for was very popular. [W14] WH (question): What did you do for your son last week? [W24] WH (question): What did your mother want to talk about? [W28] WH (question): When did he go to London to study English? [W21]*WH (sub-aux inversion): Who your favorite movie stars are? [W10]*WH (sentential subject): Who(m) did that she went out with make him sad? [W33]*WH (relative clause): What did they visit a shop which sold? Rank 2 [R12] RC (that): The picture that he is looking at was painted by Picasso. [R29] RC (wh-operator): The woman who helped me with my homework is Hanae. [W27] RC (wh-operator): The boy who(m) I met yesterday broke the car. [W12] WH (question): Why was the man surprised to read a letter? [W07]*WH (sub-aux inversion): Where your friend got such a great idea? [R07]*RC (relative clause): This is the soup which Mari visited a restaurant which served. Table 2 Sentence types learners in each rank can respond correctly Rank 3 [R33] RC (wh-operator): The man who(m) I employed as my assistant works hard. [W04]*WH (relative clause): What did he interview the teacher who wrote? Rank 4 [R02] RC (that): The car that you can see over there caused this accident. [R06] RC (null): The magazine they are always talking about is very useful.

18. Rank 5 [R20] RC (that): The student that has written this letter must be crazy. [R25]*RC (resumptive pro): The classmate that you don’t like him is very unkind. [R04]*RC (doubly-filled comp): The woman who that is singing on the stage is my aunt. Rank 6 [R18]*RC (resumptive pro): The town that my mother came from it is far from here. [R31]*RC (resumptive pro): The friend that I lent the book to her studied very hard. [R44]*RC (sentential subject): This is the meeting which that Taro attended shocked his parents. [W11]*WH (sub-aux inversion): Which city you believe that they attacked? [W25]*WH (sub-aux inversion): Whose car your father is going to drive? [W35]*WH (sub-aux inversion): Which medal it is difficult for him to win? Rank 7 [R03]*RC (sentential subject): This is the ghost which a picture of frightened the children. [R40]*RC (adjunct island): This is the homework which Ann went to school before she did. Rank 8 [R10] RC (wh-operator): The girl whose handbag was stolen is suffering from shock. [R14] RC (wh-operator): The boy to whom I talked yesterday seemed very nervous. [R27] RC (wh-operator): The girl for whom I have bought a computer is my sister. [R08]*RC (doubly-filled comp): The woman whom that we talked with was our teacher. [R39]*RC (doubly-filled comp): The dogs which that I gave the milk to were very small. [W03]*WH (sub-aux inversion): Why she was worried about her daughter? Rank 9 [R11]*RC (doubly-filled comp): The glasses which that Judy broke were very expensive. [R21]*RC (adjunct island): This is the girl who(m) the bell rang while I was thinking of. Rank 10 [W29]*WH (sentential subject): What did a discussion of occur during the meeting?

19. Below 2.500 [R23] RC (that): The student that you gave a present to looked very happy. [R35] RC (null): The friend they lent money to bought a very big house. [W13] RC (wh-operator): The girl from whom I received a letter is pretty. [R16] RC (wh-operator): The man used a word whose meaning I don’t know at all. [W01] WH (question): Whose books did you borrow yesterday? [W06] WH (question): Who came to see your father yesterday? [W19] WH (question): Who(m) does she know that Mary loved? [W32] WH (question): What books is it necessary for you to read? [R41]*RC (resumptive pro): The building that it stands near the lake is our school. [W17]*WH (sub-aux inversion): What you and your son looked at? [W30]*WH (sub-aux inversion): What you and your friend wanted to do? [R36]*RC (relative clause): This is the book which John interviewed the man who criticized. [W16]*WH (adjunct island): Which car did they cross the street when John stopped? [W26]*WH (adjunct island): Who(m) did a fire occur while you were talking with? [R19]*RC (complex NP): This is the boy who(m) Jack described the way that Bill hit. [R28]*RC (complex NP): This is the car which we heard the news that Toru bought. [W15]*WH (complex NP): Who(m) did they know the fact that David hit? [W34]*WH (complex NP): Which car did he believe the claim that John stole? [R15]*RC (embedded question): This is the house which Peter knows when Tom bought. [R32]*RC (embedded question): This is the story which Kyoko wondered who believed. [W08]*WH (embedded question): Which book did she ask John when he read? [W36]*WH (embedded question): What did you wonder who would believe?

22. - A learner in a higher rank judged correctly in more test items. - There were several items in which, as the learners’ ranks went up, parallel increase was observed in the probabilities of both correct and incorrect responses. This implies that even for advanced-level L2 learners, acquisition of some types of relative clause and wh-question constructions poses unique difficulty. - Japanese advanced-level EFL learners might have different processing strategies of relative clauses and wh-question formation from native speakers of English ( non-UG ).