1. 工作激勵與獎酬 Prentice Hall Chapter 13
Motivation and rewards are two areas of management that are often misunderstood. This chapter begins with a review of some of the popular misconceptions about these subjects. Moreover, it defines and reviews basic motivation and reward issues. Finally, it presents an integrative model of motivation and discusses its application in the contemporary workplace.
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2. 學習目標 為什麼受到高度激勵的員工不見得有高績效的工作表現 定義激勵 需求層級與ERG理論之較 描述X理論與Y理論的意涵
解釋激勵-保健二因子理論
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3. 學習目標 目標如何激勵員工 描述缺乏公平性獎酬對於激勵的影響 解釋期望理論 員工參與與激勵之間的關係 比較變動薪資政策與技能基礎的薪資政策
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4. 激勵的 基本議題 與迷思 激勵因人而異 激勵能獲得高績效 年輕人缺乏激勵 大部份的人只對絕對報酬感興趣 每個人都企求具有挑戰性的工作
One myth is that motivation is individual-specific. The fact is that motivation is situation-specific. Another myth is that a motivated worker is a high-performing employee. The fact is that high performance requires ability and support as well as motivation. Some people claim that young people today aren’t motivated. The fact is that young people today are more unorthodox, rebellious, and have different values than baby boomers; but they aren’t necessarily less motivated. Another myth is that most people are interested in absolute rewards. The fact is that people are more sensitive to relative differences than to absolute differences. Some managers think that everyone wants a challenging job. The fact is that not everyone wants to be challenged on the job.
Motivation is the willingness to exert a persistent and high level of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need. The key elements in this definition are intensity of effort, persistence, direction toward organizational goals, and needs. A motivated worker works intensely and persistently. However, effort and persistence will not pay off unless they are channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Finally, motivation is a need-satisfying process.
每個人都企求具有挑戰性的工作
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5. 尊重 歸屬感 安全 生理需求 馬斯洛的需求 自我 層級理論 實現 Prentice Hall Chapter 13
According to Abraham Maslow, within every human being, the following hierarchy of needs exists. The first three are deficiency needs because they must be satisfied if the individual is to be healthy and secure. The last two are growth needs because they are related to the development and achievement of one’s potential. As each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next higher need becomes dominant.
1. Physiological needs. Hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other survival needs.
2. Safety needs. Security, stability, and protection from physical or emotional harm.
3. Belongingness needs. Social interaction, affection, companionship, and friendship.
4. Esteem needs. Self-respect, autonomy, achievement, status, recognition, and attention.
5. Self-actualization needs. Growth, self-fulfillment, and achieving one’s potential.
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6. 艾德弗的ERG理論 存在 成長 關係 Prentice Hall Chapter 13
Clayton Alderfer argued that there are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.
The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. The relatedness group reflects our desire to maintain interpersonal relationships. Growth needs reflect our intrinsic desire for personal development. ERG theory does not assume that needs are hierarchical. Instead, it proposes a frustration-regression relationship: frustration of higher-order needs prompts demand for satisfaction of lower-order needs. This demand creates a vicious cycle of depravation, regression, and temporary gratification--deprived of higher-order gratification of needs, employees come to expect more and more lower-order-focused rewards.
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7. 明顯需求理論 需求具有兩個構面 個人擁有多重需求 多重需求影響行為 需求是經由 學習得來的 Prentice Hall Chapter 13
Sixty years ago, Henry Murray developed his theory of manifest needs. This theory provides insight into the needs-motivation link.
He proposed that needs have two components: direction and intensity. He identified over 20 needs that individuals can possess: such as achievement, affiliation, change, order, autonomy, and power. Rather than being inherited, Murray believed that these needs were learned and activated by cues from an individual’s environment. And, he rejected a hierarchy of needs, asserting that multiple needs simultaneously motivate behavior.
David McClelland expanded on Murray’s ideas and focused on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power.
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8. 馬可利蘭 的 需求理論 成就感需求 權力需求 情感需求 (nAch) (nPow) (nAff) Prentice Hall
David McClelland proposed that three learned needs motivate behavior. The need for achievement (nAch) is the need to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to succeed. The need for power (nPow) is the need to make others behave in ways that they would not have behaved otherwise. The need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for interpersonal relationships. He believed that these needs are acquired from the culture of a society.
情感需求
(nAff)
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9. X理論的員工 Y理論的員工 較不具有野心 不喜歡工作 規避責任 自我導向 喜愛工作 接受責任 Prentice Hall
Douglas McGregor said that managers hold one of two sets of assumptions about human nature: either Theory X or Theory Y. Seeing people as irresponsible and lazy, managers who follow Theory X assume the following:
1. Employees inherently dislike work and, when they can, will try to avoid it.
2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened to achieve goals.
3. Employees avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction, if possible.
4. Most workers place security above all other work-related factors and will display little ambition.
Seeing people as responsible and conscientious, managers who follow Theory Y assume the following:
1. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.
2. When committed to their objectives, people will exercise self-direction and self-control
3. The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.
4. Many workers besides managers have innovative decision-making skills.
Unfortunately, no hard evidence confirms that either set of assumptions is universally true. It is more likely that the assumptions of Theory X or Theory Y may be situationally appropriate.
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10. 賀茲伯格的 二因子 激勵理論 保健因子 激勵因子 Prentice Hall Chapter 13
Frederick Herzberg asked workers to describe situations in which they felt either good or bad about their jobs. His findings are called motivation-hygiene theory. Herzberg asserted that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, whereas extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction. So, he called company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary hygiene factors. When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; however, they will not be satisfied either. He believed that achievement, recognition, the work itself, growth, and responsibility are motivational because people find them intrinsically rewarding.
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11. 員工滿意度 具挑戰性的工作 公平的獎酬 同事間相互支持 良好的工作環境 Prentice Hall Chapter 13
Based on a review of the job satisfaction literature, four recommendations can promote employee satisfaction. But there is no assurance that they will boost either motivation or performance.
Give employees mentally challenging jobs. Employees tend to prefer jobs that give them opportunities to use their skills and abilities and that offer task variety, freedom, and feedback.
Provide equitable rewards. When pay or other rewards are seen as being fair and unambiguous, satisfaction is likely to result.
Offer supportive working conditions. Employees want a work environment that provides comfort and facilitates work. Most prefer working close to home, in clean and relatively modern facilities, and with adequate tools.
Encourage supportive colleagues. For most, work also fills the need for social interaction. Therefore, having friendly, supportive coworkers and a supportive supervisor leads to increased satisfaction.
同事間相互支持
良好的工作環境
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12. 目標-績效之間的關係 國家文化 目標承諾 自信 Prentice Hall Chapter 13
Goal-setting theory asserts the following: specific goals increase performance; when accepted, difficult goals promote high performance; and goal-relevant feedback leads to higher performance. If employees participate in setting their own goals, will their performance improve? While the evidence is mixed, participation does encourage workers to set and accept more difficult goals.
Three other factors influence the goals-performance relationship: goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, and national culture. When an individual is committed to a goal, he or she will not abandon or lower the goal. Self-efficacy refers to the individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing the task at hand. And, goal-setting theory is culture-bound.
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13. 增強理論 結果 行為 獎酬 無獎酬 懲罰 Prentice Hall Chapter 13
Rather than taking a cognitive approach (as goal-setting theory), reinforcement theory is a behavioral approach which assumes that reinforcement conditions behavior and that behavior is environmentally caused.
Reinforcement theory does not concern itself with what initiates behavior, so it is not a “true” theory of motivation. (See Chapter 12 for a discussion of how using reinforcers to condition behavior gives us considerable insight into how people learn.) Reinforcement theory ignores feelings, expectations, and attitudes, all cognitive variables that are known to influence behavior. But it also has a wide following as a motivational device. 懲罰
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14. 公平理論 認知的比較比率a 員工評估 Outcomes A Inputs A Outcomes B Inputs B < = >
不公平 (獎酬不足) 公平
不公平 (獎勵過度)
a A是員工, B是相關的其他人.
公平理論
Workers compare their job inputs and outcomes with others. There are three possible perceptions: inequity due to being under-rewarded, equity, or inequity due to being over-rewarded. Equity theory proposes that inequity creates tension, and that this tension can cause an employee to seek fairness. There are four referents that an employee can use: (1) Self-inside: an employee’s experiences in a different position inside the organization. (2) Self-outside: an employee’s experiences in a position outside of the organization. (3) Other-inside: an employee’s perception of persons inside the organization. (4) Other-outside: an employee’s perception of persons outside of the organization.
Workers who perceive an inequity will react in one of six ways: change their inputs, change their outcomes, distort perceptions of self, distort perceptions of others, choose a different referent, and leave the field.
Equity theory establishes four propositions relating to inequitable pay. First, given payment by time, over-rewarded employees will produce more than those paid equitably. Second, given payment by quantity of production, over-rewarded employees will produce fewer, but higher quality units, than will equitably paid employees. Third, given payment by time, under-rewarded employees will produce less or poorer quality of output. Fourth, given payment by quantity of production, under-rewarded employees will produce a large number of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees.
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15. 期望理論 個人努力 個人績效 組織報酬 1 2 3 3. 報酬-個人目標關係 1. 努力-績效關係 2. 績效-報酬關係 個人目標
Expectancy theory argues that an employee will be motivated to produce more when he or she believes that the effort will lead to a good performance appraisal; that a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards; and that the rewards will satisfy the employee’s personal goals. This theory focuses on three relationships.
1. The effort-performance relationship is the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.
2. The performance-rewards relationship is the degree to which an individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
3. The rewards-personal goals relationship is the degree to which the rewards of an organization satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those rewards.
個人目標
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16. 新式的勞資關係 獨立的承包商 臨時性員工 專業人士 最低工資的服務人員 從事高重覆性工作的人員 Prentice Hall
Contracted to work on specific projects, independent contractors have no loyalty to the organization. Therefore, good pay, challenging assignments, and the opportunity to develop new skills can stimulate high performance.
Contingent workers complete temporary assignments or work part-time. Flexibility, company-paid training, and opportunities for permanent status can motivate them.
Strongly committed to their field of expertise, professionals are often more loyal to their profession than to their employer. Money and promotions are low on their priority list. But, they like challenging jobs, and they want to believe that their work is appreciated.
Minimum-wage service workers typically have limited skills and education. Unless pay and benefits are significant, high turnover will be the rule.
Many standardized jobs, especially in manufacturing, pay well. Although high pay can reduce turnover, it does not necessarily motivate workers who must perform highly repetitive tasks. So, management can try the following: providing clean, attractive work surroundings, ample work breaks, and empathetic supervisors.
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17. 激勵的整合模式 高度成就 需求 個人努力 個人績效 組織報酬 個人目標 目標指導行為 權益比較 O O IA IB 能力 可支援的 資源
績效評估標準
個人努力
個人績效
組織報酬
個人目標
This model recognizes that supportive resources facilitate individual effort. Consistent with goal-setting theory, the goals-effort loop reflects that goals direct behavior. Drawing on expectancy theory, this model reflects the following: workers will put forth extra effort if they perceive a strong relationship between effort and performance, performance and rewards, and rewards and satisfaction of personal goals. This model also considers the achievement-need theory. Since high achievers are not motivated by organizational assessments of their performance, they are not concerned with effort-performance, performance-rewards, or rewards-goal links. Reinforcement theory is reflected because this model recognizes that the organization’s rewards reinforce the individual’s performance. In addition, rewards play a key role in equity theory.
績效評估系統 增強
優先需求
目標指導行為
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18. 當代的應用課題 員工投入 開卷式管理 變動薪資的方案 以技能為基礎的薪資計劃 報酬幅度擴大 關懷家庭的工作環境 員工認同的方案
A participative process that uses the entire capacity of workers, employee involvement (representative participation, quality circles, or employee stock ownership plans) increases commitment to the success of the organization.
Open-book management (OBM) seeks to get employees to think and behave like owners. Employees are given the information that historically was kept within the ranks of management. So they understand why they must solve problems, cut costs, reduce defects, and provide excellent service.
In a variable-pay program, part of an employee’s pay is based on some individual or organizational measure of performance. Four programs are popular: piece-rate wages, bonuses, profit-sharing, and gain-sharing.
Broadbanding reduces the number of salary grades in an organization. The result is a wider range of pay within the reduced number of grades. Managers can give pay raises without promoting workers. So it reinforces lateral and personal development rather than vertical career progress.
Skill-based pay rewards employees for the job skills and competencies they can demonstrate. It motivates individuals to learn new skills, facilitates cross-organizational communication, and rewards hard work and ambition.
More employees today must balance work and family responsibilities. Family-friendly workplaces offer an umbrella of work-family programs. Evidence indicates that such policies attract first-class workers and reduce absenteeism.
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