1. 規劃制度 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
Four issues are important: (1) how managers must adjust their actions when dealing with those from different cultures; (2) how organizations can become more socially conscious and responsive; (3) what managers are doing to satisfy the customer; and (4) the managerial implications of global quality standards.
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2. 學習目標 解釋由規劃所獲得的利益 描述SWOT分析的價值 比較成本領導, 差異化及集中化策略 定義可成功執行策略的要素 解釋專案管理的概念
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3. 學習目標 定義企業家精神 描述企業家的個人特質 分辨企業所表面上所陳述的目標與實質目標的差異 設立目標管理計劃 學習時間管理的技術
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4. 計劃的種類 策略性 作業性 短期 中期 長期 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
Planning is defining organizational goals, establishing a strategy for reaching those goals, and developing a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to integrate and coordinate activities. Planning can be either formal or informal, depending on the time frame and amount of documentation.
Strategic Versus Operational Plans. Upper-level managers develop strategic plans that apply to the entire organization, establish overall objectives, and position the organization within its environment. Lower-level managers focus on operational plans that specify how the overall objectives will be achieved. These plans differ in time frame and scope: operational plans are limited in scope and are measured daily, weekly, or monthly; strategic plans are broader, less specific and encompass five or more years.
Short-, Intermediate-, and Long-Term Plans. The short term covers less than one year, the intermediate-term covers one to five years, and the long term is five years or more. The commitment concept is relevant to classifying plans because the more current plans affect future commitments, the longer the time frame for which managers must plan. The length of the planning horizon increases up the management hierarchy, and decisions of top management imply greater commitments of resources than decisions of lower managers.
Planning gives direction, reduces the impact of change, minimizes redundancy and waste, and sets the standards for control.
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5. 有關於規劃 的批評 對於正式的 策略規劃的批評 對於穩定的僵固性假設 混亂的環境 直覺與創意 只著重於現在的產業結構 只著眼於現在的成功
Formalized and strategic planning is popular in business, but critics have observed the following:
• Planning creates too much rigidity. Assuming that conditions will remain relatively stable, formal plans lock organizational units into specific goals and time frames.
• You can’t plan for change in a turbulent environment. While turbulence can provide opportunity for flexible organizations, those locked into formal plans see change as a problem.
• Systems can’t replace intuition and creativity. Developing strategy depends as much on intuition and creativity as it does on formal analysis. Because most successful strategies are visions, not plans, merely following a systematic framework will not yield incisive thinking.
• Planning focuses management’s attention on competing within today’s industry structure rather than on competing for tomorrow’s. Management must be proactive and change their industry’s rules or create tomorrow’s industries.
• Planning encourages successful organizations to become overly preoccupied with the factors responsible for their success, setting up conditions that can lead to failure. Success can breed failure. Since change is motivated by problems, long-term success will not motivate managers to challenge the status quo.
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6. 規劃得以改善績效嗎? 財務結果 權變性規劃 品質與執行 洞察力與創意 環境的考量 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
The evidence is mostly positive and suggests several conclusions.
1. Formal planning is frequently associated with positive financial results.
2. Managers have learned to use contingency plans and on-going planning to promote flexibility.
3. The quality of the planning process and the implementation of the plans affect performance more than does the extent of the plans.
4. No planning system or strategic framework can replace creativity and insight.
5. The environment can scuttle even the best strategic plans.
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7. 定義組織的目的 使命聲明 遠景 指引依據 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
A mission statement defines an organization’s purpose and provides guidance to managers and employees. It answers questions such as the following: What business are we in? What are we trying to accomplish? All organizations have strengths and weaknesses. A clear mission statement can help the organization to focus its strengths into competitive advantages.
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8. 建立策略 成長型 穩定型 精簡型 混合型 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
Types of Strategies. The grand strategy chosen by management controls the direction taken by the organization: for example, growing, maintaining the status quo, or downsizing.
• Growth. A growth strategy can use the following methods to expand organizational operations: aggressive direct expansion, development of new products and services, mergers and acquisitions, joint ventures, and expansion into global markets.
• Stability. A stability strategy is characterized by an absence of significant change.
• Downsizing. An organization that is reducing its workforce is downsizing.
• Combination. Because units of a large organization often move, expand, or contract at different rates, some companies pursue two or more of the preceding strategies.
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9. SWOT 分析 弱點 威脅 機會 優勢 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
To plan strategy, managers must assess the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats within its operating environment.
• Identify External Opportunities and Threats. Environmental scanning reveals opportunities and threats. How an organization defines opportunities or threats depends on its resources.
• Identify the Organization’s Strengths and Weaknesses. All organizations are constrained by their skills and resources. Management must assess internal organizational strengths and weaknesses. Doing so will enable them to identify the firm’s distinctive competence: unique skills and resources that determine the organization’s competitive weapons.
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10. 運用SWOT分析 組織的資源 在環境中的機會 組織的利基 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
This figure illustrates the objective of SWOT analysis. A successful analysis identifies a niche in which the organization’s products or services can have some competitive advantage. The area in which the opportunities in the environment overlap with the organization’s resources represents the niche wherein the organization’s opportunities lie.
組織的利基
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11. 選擇策略性的架構 成本領導 差異化 集中 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
Michael Porter of Harvard University asserts that no firm can be all things to all people. By using his framework, management can select a strategy that gives its organization a competitive advantage.
Porter has identified three strategies from which management may choose: cost-leadership, differentiation, and focus. When an organization aims to be the low-cost producer, it is following a cost-leadership strategy. The firm that seeks to be unique in ways widely valued by buyers is following a differentiation strategy. The focus strategy aims at a cost advantage or differentiation advantage in a narrow segment. 集中
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12. 執行策略 結構 策略 系統 技能 風格 幕僚 整體目標 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
The consulting firm, McKinsey & Co., has developed the 7-S model to expedite strategy implementation.
• Strategy. The right strategy reflects an accurate environmental assessment..
• Superordinate Goals. These overarching goals unite the organization in some common purpose.
• Skills. The strategy must be congruent with the organization’s core competencies.
• Structure. Strategy determines the structure that will help the organization reach its goals.
• Systems. Formal policies and procedures must align with and support the chosen strategy.
• Style. Top management communicates the organization’s true commitment to the chosen strategy.
• Staff. Selection and training of appropriate personnel support the organization’s strategy.
Long-term success requires that the strategy be sustainable despite changing technology, fickle customers, and increasing competition. Management can accomplish this by creating barriers that make imitation difficult or that reduce competitive opportunities. 風格 幕僚
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13. 專案管理程序 完成時間 5 定義目標 1 資源與相關活動 2 時程表的目標 6 優先順序關係 3 時間預估 4 資源需求 7
A one-time set of activities with a definite beginning and ending, a project varies in size and scope. Project management is the task of getting the activities done on time, within budget, and according to specifications.
Project management is flexible and allows firms to respond quickly in dynamic environments. The project is usually temporary, existing only long enough to accomplish its goals. The essential features of the project planning process can be summarized by the following:
1. Define the project’s objectives.
2. Identify activities and the resources needed to achieve them.
3. Establish sequencing relationships for activities.
4. Make time estimates for activities.
5. Determine project completion time.
6. Compare project schedule objectives.
7. Determine resource requirements to meet objectives.
優先順序關係 3
時間預估 4
資源需求 7
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14. 企業家人格 一般性的 人格特質 三項 重要因素 其他的 重要因素 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
Entrepreneurship is the process by which individuals pursue opportunities to innovatively fulfill needs and wants, regardless of the resources they control. Small business management does not equate to entrepreneurship. Instead, many small business managers are clones of stability-seeking managers at large corporations or government bureaucracies.
Peter Drucker said that entrepreneurs could exist in large corporations. Contrasting “trustee” managers who maintain the status quo, entrepreneurial managers believe in their abilities to innovate and capitalize on surprises. Drucker’s ideas are somewhat dated because all of today’s effective managers are entrepreneurial, as he defined the concept. In addition, the term intrapreneurship describes the entrepreneurial spirit in large organizations today. Yet, intrapreneurship can never capture the autonomy and risks inherent in entrepreneurship.
New business graduates as well as those downsized out of Corporate America are seizing entrepreneurial opportunities. Some common characteristics of entrepreneurs are hard work, self-confidence, optimism, determination, and high energy. Three main factors stand out: a high need for achievement, a strong belief that individuals control their own destinies, and a desire to take moderate risks. Entrepreneurs are independent types who prefer to solve problems themselves and to set and achieve their own goals. They do not enjoy working for a large firm or government agency, and they crave the challenges inherent in starting a small businesses.
Some other important factors are related to being an entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship can flourish in a supportive culture. Parents play an important role in nurturing entrepreneurial tendencies in their children. Entrepreneurs usually have role models whom they wish to emulate. Beginning an entrepreneurial business tends to be a recurring activity for some persons.
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15. 企業家與傳統管理者的比較 特質 管理者 企業家 主要激勵方式 時間概念 活動 風險傾向 對於失敗與錯誤的看法 傳統式的獎勵 短期目標
授權/監督 低 規避
非傳統式的獎勵
長期目標
直接投入 中等 接受
While strategic questions may focus on the same concerns, entrepreneurs and bureaucrats approach strategy differently.
The entrepreneur is driven by perceived opportunity rather than available resources. Once an opportunity is spotted, an entrepreneur will want to capitalize on it. Besides being confident that he or she can succeed, the entrepreneur is not afraid to risk financial security, career opportunities, family relations, or psychic well-being to get the venture started. Only after identifying an opportunity and developing a plan for exploiting it does he or she worry about resources. After obtaining the resources, the entrepreneur will put together the components required to implement the overall strategy.
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16. 目標的善用與誤用 多重目標 實質性與陳述性 基本的價值 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
From CEOs to first-line supervisors, one element of planning affects every manager’s job: setting objectives. Objectives or goals refer to desired outcomes for individuals, groups, or entire organizations.
Organizations Have Multiple Objectives. Because organizations must satisfy multiple constituencies, they have multiple objectives: for instance, increasing market share, moving into new markets, developing new products, ensuring employee welfare, and being responsible citizens.
Real versus Stated Objectives. Statements included in an organization’s charter, annual report, mission statement, brochures, or public relations announcements are stated objectives. These official announcements of what an organization claims are its objectives are often conflicting and excessively influenced by what society believes that organizations should do. Stated objectives are often vague and more accurately reflect management’s public relations skills than what the organization is actually seeking to accomplish. In fact, an organization’s stated objectives may be irrelevant to what really occurs in that organization.
The Value of Objectives. While organizational objectives may be more style than substance, goals set by work units or individuals are more substance than style. Goal-setting theory claims that specific goals raise performance; that difficult goals, if accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals; and that feedback boosts performance.
基本的價值
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17. 目標管理 確認主要的工作與任務 建立特定且具有挑戰性的目標 設定完成期限 讓員工參與 排定目標的優先順序 評定目標的困難度與重要性
設立回饋機制
將目標達成與報酬結合
MBO converts overall objectives into specific goals for organizational units and individuals. MBO creates a hierarchy of objectives that links objectives at one level to those at the next level. The following captures the essence of an MBO program.
1. Identify an employee’s key job tasks.These tasks are derived from the unit’s goals.
2. Establish specific and challenging goals for each key task. Include both quantity and quality dimensions of performance.
3. Specify the deadline for each goal. A realistic deadline reduces ambiguity.
4. Have the employee actively participate. Participation increases acceptance of goals.
5. Prioritize goals. Because workers have multiple goals, prioritizing will help them expend effort on each goal according to its importance.
6. Rate goals for difficulty and importance. Individuals can be given credit for trying to obtain hard goals, even if they do not succeed.
7. Build in feedback mechanisms to assess goal progress. Frequent feedback lets employees know if they are exerting effort sufficient to achieve challenging goals.
8. Link rewards to goal attainment. Rewards should reflect goal difficulty and outcomes.
Not everyone believes in setting goals. W. Edwards Deming, for example, argued that quantitative goals encourage employees to focus on quantity rather than quality of output. In addition, workers treat specific goals as ceilings, not floors, and rest on their haunches after achieving the goals. So, specific goals discourage continuous improvement. And, overly demanding goals dictated from above pressure individuals to misrepresent data to achieve them. These criticisms can be overcome, however. Managers can ensure that workers have multiple goals and pursue quality as well as quantity. Goal setting should be on-going, and goals should be regularly reviewed and updated. In addition, individuals should be rewarded for setting difficult goals, even if they are not fully achieved.
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18. 時間管理的技巧 時間的運用 可控的時間 時間是 稀少的資源 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
Time management is actually a personal form of scheduling. Managers who use their time effectively know what activities they want to accomplish, the best order in which to do the activities, and when they want to complete them.
Time is a unique resource. If it is wasted, it can never be replaced. If lost, it can never be regained. The positive side is that all managers have the same amount of time. Some just use their allotments of time better than others.
The majority of time is spent responding to requests, demands, and problems initiated by others. We call this response time and treat it as uncontrollable. The portion that is under a manager’s control is called discretionary time. Most suggestions for improving time management apply to discretionary time since it is the only time that is manageable. Managers who are good at identifying and using their discretionary time accomplish significantly more, and the things they get done are more likely to be high-priority activities (thus contributing to their performance effectiveness).
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19. 時間管理的 五項步驟 列出目標 排序目標 表列活動 分配優先順序 時程表的執行 Prentice Hall Chapter 5
The following is a five-step, time management process and some suggestions for how to use time effectively.
1. List your objectives. What specific objectives have you set for yourself and the unit you manage?
2. Rank the objectives according to their importance. Not all objectives are of equal importance. Given time constraints, make sure that you give the highest priority to the most important objectives.
3. List the activities necessary to achieve your objectives. What specific actions do you need to take to achieve objectives?
4. For each objective, assign priorities to the various activities required to reach the objective. Emphasize time and urgency. If the activity is not important, consider delegating it to someone else.
5. Schedule your activities according to the priorities you have set. Prepare a daily plan by listing about five important things that you want to do for the day. Then set priorities for the activities based on urgency and importance.
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20. 更多關於時間管理的建議 遵守10-90原則 了解你的生產週期 記位帕金森定律 將活動組合起來 減少干擾 Prentice Hall
Most managers produce 90 percent of their results using only 10 percent of their time. It’s easy to get caught in the “activity trap” and confuse activity with accomplishment.
Each of us has a daily energy cycle that influences when we feel productive or unproductive. Don’t fight your natural cycle. Understand it and use it.
Parkinson’s Law says that work expands to fill the time available. So if you give yourself an excess amount of time to accomplish an activity, you are likely to pace yourself so that you use up the time, even though you may not have really needed it.
Set aside time to do “busy work” like making phone calls or answering . Doing so will avoid duplication, waste, and redundancy. It also prevents trivial matters from crowding out high-priority tasks.
Minimize disruptions by setting aside a block of discretionary time during that part of the day when you are most productive. Then try to isolate yourself by limiting access to your work area and refusing phone calls. Then set aside blocks of time when your door will be open for unexpected visits and you can return or initiate phone calls.
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