1. Implementation Once a policy choice has been made there still remains several policy stages

2. Policy Legitimation Once a choice of solution has been made – it must be “sold” or legitimated to the public. If not, implementation may be impossible For example: Prohibition

3. How is this done? Interest Groups Political Elites: President, Parties, etc. Bureaucracies The Media Think Tanks

4. How to Implement a Policy Top down v. Bottom up Which agency? New agency? How much money to allocate Who is the targeted group? Which felonies count as a strike? Which welfare recipients must look for a job? How is enforcement/regulation done? Smoking initiative?

5. The Devil is in the details. Bureaucracies announce an estimated 20 rules for every congressional law As Dye says, “The actual governance of the nation rests in the hands of bureaucrats.” Is this undemocratic?

6. Influencing Bureaucratic Behavior The Public The President –Presidents are often stymied by the bureaucracy –Tools of the President (Chief budget officer; Appointment; media) Congress –Legislating agency organization and mission –Confirming Presidential appointments –Controlling the agency budget –Holding oversight hearings (Fire-alarm/Police Patrol) Interest groups

7. Delegating to the Bureaucracy Delegation - Delegate power to bureaucracy to shift the responsibility for controversial decisions. Why? Uncertainty. Defining Uncertainty: 1) Large range of alternative policy choices 2) A legislator has little or no information 3) A legislator cannot discern a clear optimum choice “the political risks associated with policy choices may be large” Rational Legislators: let bureaucrats collect the information on optimal choices and let bureaucrats absorb the political fallout when they are wrong.

8. POLICY IMPLICATION? 1. Division of Labor/Development of expertise: more efficient 2. Principle/Agent problems: preventing shirking 3. Rent Seeking: special interest influence 4. Delegation vs. Abdication:

9. Preventing Bureaucratic Shirking Congressional oversight –Committees: Committees have created separate oversight or investigative subcommittees. Have increased # of hearings in order to increase oversight. BUT – lack of time and resources - Much of the information that subcommittees get on bureaus comes from the agency themselves. Monitoring : –Congressional Research Service –Congressional Budget Office –General Accounting Office Carefully Written Laws (overlapping jurisdictions)

10. Ingredients of Successful Implementation 1.Clear and consistent objectives 2.A sound theory of causal linkages 3.Assignment of tasks to agencies sympathetic with the underlying policy 4.Support given by interest groups to the implementation process 5.Public support that continues throughout the process of implementation.