1. Squaring Function Squaring Function Zehavit Trachtenberg Ido Dinerman Barak Cohen

2. Squaring Function The squaring function is used in many applications such as the Viterbi alg. (error correction code), VQ alg. (image data compression, speech and writing recognition) and calculating Euclidean squared distance estimation. Fast implementation for RT purposes is needed, two of which will be explored in this work: 1. Digital implementation – compensating algorithm by Ming-Hwa Sheu and Su-Hon Lin. 2. Analog implementation.

3. Project Goals  Function implementation – Analog (Spice)  Function implementation – Digital (VHDL)  Implementation of function for practical use (Pythagoras Theorem).

4. DIGITAL

5. Digital Implementation  The digital implementation is based on the approximate squaring function.  Input: n-bit binary data A = Σ 2 i *a i i=0..n-1 Output: 2n-bit binary number Output: 2n-bit binary number R = Σ 2 m *r m n ≈ A 2 m=0..2n-1

6. Algorithm  The output expression of the exact squaring function is: (for a 4 bit number) A² = (a 3 a 2 a 1 a 0 )² = 2 6 (a 3 +a 3 a 2 ) + 2 5 a 3 a 1 + 2 4 (a 2 +a 3 a 0 +a 2 a 1 )+2 3 a 2 a 0 + = 2 6 (a 3 +a 3 a 2 ) + 2 5 a 3 a 1 + 2 4 (a 2 +a 3 a 0 +a 2 a 1 )+2 3 a 2 a 0 + 2 2 (a 1 a 0 +a 1 )+2 0 a 0 2 2 (a 1 a 0 +a 1 )+2 0 a 0

7. Algorithm cont. Step 1: The approximate result R is equal to the pure terms R = 2 6 a 3 +2 4 a 2 +2 2 a 1 +2 0 a 0 Step 2: Select the closest composite terms for compensation (2 6 a 3 a 2, 2 4 a 2 a 1, 2 2 a 1 a 0 ): R=2 6 (a 3 +a 3 a 2 )+2 4 (a 2 +a 2 a 1 )+ 2 2 (a 1 +a 1 a 0 )+2 0 a 0 =2 7 a 3 a 2 +2 6 a 3 a 2 +2 5 a 2 a 1 +2 4 a 2 a 1 +2 3 a 1 a 0 =2 7 a 3 a 2 +2 6 a 3 a 2 +2 5 a 2 a 1 +2 4 a 2 a 1 +2 3 a 1 a 0 +2 2 a 1 a 0 +2 0 a 0

8. Algorithm cont. Step 3: choose the second closest composite terms for compensation. do the same as step 2 (terms 2 5 a 3 a 1, 2 3 a 2 a 0 ) The result is: R= 2 7 a 3 a 2 +2 6 a 3 (a 2 Ua 1 ) +2 5 (a 3 +a 2 )a 1 +2 4 a 2 (a 1 Ua 0 ) +2 3 (a 2 +a 1 )a 0 +2 2 a 1 a 0 +2 0 a 0

9. Algorithm cont. Step 4: the approximation: Add the remaining term (2 4 a 3 a 0 ) to the sum with the OR operator: R=2 7 a 3 a 2 +2 6 a 3 (a 2 Ua 1 ) +2 5 (a 3 +a 2 )a 1 +2 4 a 2 (a 1 Ua 0 )Ua 3 a 0 +2 3 (a 2 +a 1 )a 0 +2 2 a 1 a 0 +2 0 a 0

10. Algorithm result r 4 7 = a 3 a 2 r 4 6 = a 3 a 2 Ua 3 a 1 r 4 5 =a 3 a 2 a 1 Ua 3 a 2 a 1 r 4 4 =a 2 a 1 Ua 2 a 0 Ua 3 a 0 r 4 3 = a 2 a 1 a 0 Ua 2 a 1 a 0 r 4 2 = a 1 a 0 r 4 1 = 0 r 4 0 = a 0

11. Algorithm cont. By induction: r n i-1 = a n-1 a n-2 r n i-2 = a n-1 a n-2 Ua n-1 a n-3 r n i-3 = a n-1 (r n-1 i-3 ) U a n-1 a n-2 a n-3 r n i-4 = (r n-1 i-4 )Ua n-1 a n-4 r n i-n = (r n-1 i-n )Ua n-1 a 0 r n i-n-1 = (r n-1 i-n-1 ) r n 0 = (r n-1 0 )

12. Algorithm error  Error = (A² - R) /A²*100%  the error increases with the length of the number. i.e. for 4 bits the error is 9.47% and for 10 bits the error is 18.19% Average error : 4 bits 1.04% and 10 bits 4.21%

13. Implementation  VHDL simulation of the function.  implementation in the transistor level using CMOS transistors.  Place and route for the circuit.  size, power and speed analysis.

14. SPICE Implementation

15. SPICE Simulation

16. Simulation Results OUTPUTOUTPUT INPUTINPUT LSB MSB

17. Propagation Delay  Propagation Delay : Nand2: Tpd = 5.1 ns Nand2: Tpd = 5.1 ns Nand3: Tpd = 6.2ns Nand3: Tpd = 6.2ns Nor2: Tpd = 4.4ns Nor2: Tpd = 4.4ns Buffer: Tpd = 6.6 ns Buffer: Tpd = 6.6 ns  The propagation delay for the critical path (the one for R2 or R7) is a nor2 gate and a buffer, thus Tpd is 11ns

18. Layout (Logic)

19. Layout (chip) Vcc Gnd out8out7out6 out5 out4 out3 out2 in4in3 in2 in1 out1

20. LVS Result

21. VHDL Implementation  The digital model was implemented using VHDL structural architecture similar to the spice implementation.  Propagation delay times were calculated using simulations of scmos library logical gates.

22. VHDL simulation results

23. VHDL simulation results cont The errors in the algorithm occurred in a = 13 and in a = 15 Expected results : for a = 13 r = 169 simulation result = 153 for a = 15 r = 225 simulation result = 209

24. Error Correction Different methods for producing an error- free Digital Squaring Function: Implementing the shown algorithm without using approximation. Implementing the shown algorithm without using approximation. Correcting 2 error outputs using an Error Correction Unit. Correcting 2 error outputs using an Error Correction Unit.

25. Straightforward Calculation r 4 7 = a 3 a 2 +[a 3 (a 2 +a 1 )]{[(a 3 +a 2 )a 1 ][a 2 (a 1 +a 0 )a 3 a 2 ]} r 4 6 ={[a 3 (a 2 +a 1 )] + [(a 3 + a 2 )a 1 ][a 2 (a 1 +a 0 )a 3 a 0 ]} r 4 5 =[(a 3 + a 2 )a 1 ] + [a 2 (a 1 +a 0 )a 3 a 0 ] r 4 4 = a 2 (a 1 +a 0 ) + a 3 a 0 r 4 3 = a 1 a 0 + a 2 a 0 r 4 2 = a 1 a 0 r 4 1 = 0 r 4 0 = a 0

26. Straightforward Algorithm cont. Estimated number of transistors per each output bit: r 4 7 = 52 r 4 6 = 44 r 4 5 = 32 r 4 4 = 18 r 4 3 = 6 r 4 2 = 4 r 4 1 = 0 r 4 0 = 0 input inverters = 8 Buffers ~36 Total # transistors ~200 Important : the calculated number does not contain transistors in buffers.

27. Straightforward Algorithm cont. Calculating the Propagation Delay: # of levels in longest path (R7) = 5 Pd for a NAND2 gate = 5.1ns Pd for input inverter = 3ns Total Pd (worst case) = 28.5ns

28. Error Correction Unit Designing an error correction unit for squaring a 4-bit number. The following implementation deals with 2 errors: Err1: 13 2 = 153…  13 2 = 169 Err2: 15 2 = 209…  15 2 = 225

29. Error Correction Unit INPUT: approximated result OUTPUT: correct result

30. Simulation Configuration

31. Error Correction Output OUTPUTOUTPUT INPUTINPUT LSB MSB LSB MSB correct output!

32. Error Correction –Pros & Cons Pros: It’s correct! It’s correct!Cons: Area usage Area usage Resources & Cost – 120 transistors in correction unit. Resources & Cost – 120 transistors in correction unit. Propagation – requires synchronization in order to avoid hazards (at Squaring Function output), considerable increase in propagation delay Propagation – requires synchronization in order to avoid hazards (at Squaring Function output), considerable increase in propagation delay Not a generic solution Not a generic solution

33. Comparing Error Correction Methods Compensatedimplementation Error Correction Unit Straightforward Implementation # of transistors 104 104 + 120 ~200 Pd (worst case) 13.2 ns Extra synch. Unit required 28.5 ns Power 3.02*10 -16 *f 3.02*10 -16 *f+ 3.98*10 -16 *f ~6*10 -16 *f Area 1.72*10 -8 m 2 1.72*10 -8 m 2 +1.7*10 -8 m 2 ~2.45*10 -8 m 2

34. ANALOG

35. Analog implementation  Consider the following arrangement of CMOS transistors. M1, M2 in saturation.  The equation of transistors in saturation is: I d =K(V gs -V t )² in our circuit: I 1 =K(V a -V t )² I 2 =K(V b -V t )² V b = V 2 – V a

36. Analog implementation cntd. combining the three equations we will receive the following: difference of output currents: I 1 – I 2 = K(V 2 -2V t )(V a -V b ) sum of output currents: I 1 + I 2 = ½K(V 2 -2V t )²+(I 1 – I 2 ) ²/2K(V 2 -2V t )²

37. Analog implementation cntd. In order to provide a stable V 2 voltage source we will use a current controlled circuit. In order to provide a stable V 2 voltage source we will use a current controlled circuit. I 0 = 1 / 4 K(V 2 -2V t ) ² I 0 = 1 / 4 K(V 2 -2V t ) ²

38. Analog implementation cntd. By connecting the drain and the source of M1 we get our new circuit. Our previous equations still hold. We consider I in as an input. we get: By connecting the drain and the source of M1 we get our new circuit. Our previous equations still hold. We consider I in as an input. we get: I in = I 1 -I 2

39. Analog implementation cntd. We copy I1 using a current mirror, hence we get: We copy I1 using a current mirror, hence we get: I out = I1+I2 I out = I1+I2 Now, we substitute I in and I out in our previous result: I 1 + I 2 = ½K(V 2 -2V t )²+ (I 1 – I 2 ) ²/2K(V 2 -2V t )² We get: I in = ½K(V 2 -2V t )²+ (I out ) ²/2K(V 2 -2V t )²

40. Analog implementation cntd. Remember that V 2 is controlled by the control current I 0 = 1 / 4 K(V 2 -2V t ) ² substituting this in the previous expression we finally get: I out = 2I 0 + I in 2 / 8I 0 We can eliminate the offset current 2I 0 by subtracting it from the output. We do so by copying I 0 twice and subtracting it from I 0. We finally get: I out = I in 2 / 8I 0 I out = I in 2 / 8I 0 In order to keep all the devices in the circuit in ON state we have to maintain the following: |I in | < 4I 0 |I in | < 4I 0

41. The final squaring circuit:

42. Simulation results Dc analysis: sweep of input current -4*I0  4*I0 Control current of 175uA gives the best results: expected output

43. Max absolute Error of 8uA Approximated Error in percentage: ~0.75%

44. Simulation results Square of sin function: expected output

45. BW of 10MHz 10MHz 10GHZ 1GHz 100MHz For each frequency the input is sin(wt). The expected output – sin 2 (wt) is presented as well as the output of the circuit.

46. Analog summary  Area: 8 transistors (Very small)  Band Width: 10MHz  Input Current Range : -700uA 700uA -700uA  700uA Absolute Error: 8uA (accuracy error more effective than enviromental errors – noise) Error in percentage: ~0.75% hence the device can handle a range of 2*(700/8)=180 values.  Constant power dissipation (can be reduced when the device is not in use by adding more hardware)

47. Analog Square Root  The equation of transistors in saturation is:  By solving for V gs we get:

48. Analog Square Root output expected

49. C = sqrt(A 2 +B 2 ) We combine all the results so far in order to implement Pythagoras Theorem and find an Euclidian distance:

50. Results expected output Sqrt(A 2 +B 2 ) A 2 +B 2 Input

51. Pythagoras 2 nd try

52. Results expected output Sqrt(A 2 +B 2 ) A 2 +B 2 Input

53. Bibliography (1) Fast Compensative Design Approach for the Approximate Squaring Function - Ming-Hwa Sheu and Su-Hon Lin, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, Vol.37, No.1, Jan 2002 (2) “A Class of Analog CMOS Circuits Based on the Square-Law Characteristic of an MOS Transistor in Saturation” by Klass Blut and Hans Wallinga, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, Vol.SC-22, No.3, June 1987

54. THE END