1. Identifying and Understanding Air, Water, and Soil Pollution

2. Air Pollution Atmosphere need to know: Air is more dense at sea level
75-80% of air mass found in troposphere
Atmosphere contains 78% N, 21%O, and 1% trace gases like, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, argon, water vapor, and carbon dioxide. Also soot, and dust.
Ozone (3 O2 + UV O3) blocks 95% UV
Ozone keeps O from forming photochemical ozone, a harmful pollutant near the ground

3. Air Pollution What is Air Pollution?
the presence of chemicals in the atmosphere at concentrations high enough to harm organisms, ecosystems, and human made items.
Effects range from annoying to lethal.
Natural sources include dust, smoke, and VOC’s released by certain plants. Most are spread out or removed by chemical cycles, precipitation, and gravity.
Human inputs of air pollution are mostly due to industry, transportation, and densely populated areas.

4. Air Pollution (a glance through time)
Humans burning wood in poorly ventilated space.
Middle ages haze of wood smoke around urban areas.
Industrial Revolution required burning coal which led to great increases in respiratory diseases.
Late 1800’s saw people in London dying from the “pea soup” fogs caused by dense coal smoke mixtures.
1952 a yellow fog killed approximately Londoners. British Parliament passes Clean Air Act of 1956.
US in the 1940’s experienced severe air pollution.
Donora, Pennsylvania experienced first air pollution disaster in October A 5 day toxic fog sickened 6,000 people and killed 20.
New York City 1963: 300 people die and thousands more sickened.
US develops the Clean Air Act of 1970

5. Air Pollution
Primary Pollutants – harmful chemicals emitted directly into the air from natural processes and human
Secondary Pollutants – formed when primary pollutants react with one another or with basic components of air to form new harmful

6. Air Pollution

7. Air Pollution Urban vs. Rural? What about the wind?
Developed vs. Developing countries?
1.1 billion people live in urban areas where outdoor air is unhealthy. (WHO)
Developing Countries do not have Air Pollution Laws.
Indoor air pollution is major problem for the poor
Air Pollution is no longer a regional problem it is a global problem.

8. Major Outdoor Air Pollutants
Carbon Oxides – CO, CO2; form during the incomplete combustion of carbon containing materials.
Ex.(motor vehicle exhaust, tobacco smoke, open fires, inefficient stoves, and forest and grassland fires.
CO reacts with hemoglobin in red blood cells and reduces the ability of blood to transport oxygen throughout the body.
93% of CO2 results from the carbon cycle, the rest comes from human activities such as deforestation and burning of fossil fuels.
CO2 levels have been on the rise since the industrial revolution and documented well since the 1950’s.

9. Major Outdoor Air Pollutants
Nitrogen Oxides and Nitric Acid - NO, HNO3; nitrogen and oxygen gas react at high combustion temperatures in automobile engines and coal-burning plants. Lighting and certain bacteria also produce NO.
NO2 reacts with water vapor to create HNO3 and nitrate salts (NO3-) which cause harmful acid deposition.
Both NO and NO2 play a role in forming photochemical smog.
Nitrous oxide (N2O) a greenhouse gas is emitted from fertilizers, and animal wastes and is produced by burning fossil fuels.
Nitrogen Oxides can irritate the eyes, nose, and throat; aggravate lung ailments and increase susceptibility to respiratory infections.
Nitrogen Oxides can also suppress plant growth and reduce visibility when they are converted to nitric acid and nitrate salts

10. Major Outdoor Pollutants
Sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid – SO2, H2SO4; about 1/3 of SO2 in the atmosphere comes from natural sources. The other 2/3 come from human sources, mostly from burning sulfur containing coal, oil refining and smelting of sulfide ores.
SO2 can be converted to aerosols of H2SO4 and suspended particles of sulfate (SO42-) salts which lead to acid deposition.
Sulfur dioxide, sulfuric acid droplets, and sulfate particles reduce visibility and aggravate breathing problems. SO2 and H2SO4 can damage crops, trees, soils, and aquatic life in lakes. They also corrode metals and damage paint, paper, leather, and stone on buildings and statues.

11. Major Outdoor Air Pollutants
Particulates(Suspended Particulate Matter) SPM; Consists of a variety of solid particles and liquid droplets that can remain suspended in the air for long periods of time.
62% of SPM exists from natural sources, dust, smoke, sea salt. 38% exists comes from human sources, coal burning power plants, motor vehicles, plowed fields, road construction, unpaved roads, and tobacco smoke.
Since 1990 more than 2000 studies link SPM to adverse health affects.
According to the EPA and Harvard School of Public Health, particulate air pollution is responsible for 60,000-70,000 premature deaths a year.

12. Major Outdoor Air Pollution
Particulates Continued. . .
The most harmful forms of SPM are fine particles ( average diameter of less than 10 micrometers) and ultra fine particles (average diameter of 2.5 micrometers).
These particles can irritate the nose, throat, damage lungs, aggravate asthma and bronchitis, and shorten life.
Toxic particulates such as lead, cadmium, and PCB’s (polychlorinated biphenyls) can cause mutations, reproductive problems, and cancer.
Particulates also reduce visibility, corrode metals, and discolor clothes and paints.

13. Major Outdoor Air Pollution
Ozone – O3; a major component of photochemical smog. Ozone found in the troposphere is considered “bad” ozone, while stratospheric ozone is considered “good” ozone.
Ozone can cause coughing and breathing problems, aggravate lung and heart disease, reduce resistance to colds and pneumonia, irritate eyes, nose, and throat.
Ozone also damages plants, rubber in tires, fabrics, and paints.

14. Major Outdoor Air Pollutants
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s); Organic compounds that exist as gases in the atmosphere. Most are hydrocarbons such as isoprene and terpenes, emitted by plants, and methane which is a greenhouse gas.
1/3 of methane comes from natural sources such as plants, wetlands, and termites. The rest come from human sources primarily rice paddies, landfills, oil and natural gas wells, and cows.
Other VOC’s including benzene, vinyl chloride, and trichloroethylene (TCE) are used as industrial solvents, dry cleaning fluids, and components of gasoline, plastics, drugs, synthetic rubber, and other products.

15. Major Outdoor Air Pollutants
Volatile Organic Compounds continued. . .
Benzene is found in motor vehicle and power plant emissions, and tobacco smoke.
Long term exposure can lead to leukemia, numerous blood disorders, and immune system damage.
Short term exposure to high levels can cause dizziness, unconsciousness, and death.

16. Major Outdoor Air Pollution
Lead (Pb); since it is a chemical element lead does not break down in the environment.
Lead is a potent neurotoxin and can damage the nervous system. Each year 12,000-16,000 American children under age 9 are treated for acute lead poisoning. About 200 die. 30% of survivors suffer from palsy, partial paralysis, blindness and mental retardation.
Children under 6 and unborn fetuses are especially vulnerable to lead exposure

17. Major Outdoor Air Pollution
Lead continued. . .
Between 1976 and 2000, the percentage of US children ages 1-5 with blood lead levels above the safety standard dropped from 85% to 2.2%
Why?
The US banned the use of leaded gasoline and lead based paint in 1976 to have a complete phase out by 1986.
US centers of Disease Control estimate that at least 310,000 children still have unsafe blood levels of lead caused by exposure to lead based paint found in approximately 38 million homes built before 1960, and lead contaminated dust in deteriorating buildings.

18. Major Outdoor Air Pollution
Lead continued. . .
Lead has been found in lipsticks, toys, and can leach from water pipes and faucets.
Developing countries still battling with high lead poisoning issues, predominately due to the use of leaded gasoline.

19. Major Outdoor Air Pollution Lead (Pb) Poisoning
Prevention
Control
Phase out lead gasoline worldwide
Phase out Waste incineration
Ban use of lead solder
Ban use of lead in computer and TV monitors
Ban lead glazing for ceramic ware used to serve food
Ban candles with lead cores
Test blood for lead by age 1
Replace lead pipes and plumbing fixtures containing lead solder
Remove leaded paint and lead dust from older homes and apartments
Sharply reduce lead emissions from incinerators
Remove lead from TV sets and Computer monitors before incineration or land disposal
Test for lead in existing ceramic ware used to serve food
Test existing candles for lead
Wash fresh fruits and vegetables

20. Industrial Smog Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4
Ammonium sulfate salts and soot are what cause smog to appear gray in color. Therefore it is sometimes called gray air smog.
Ammonia (NH3)
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Water Vapor (H2O)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
and
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
Oxygen (O2)
Burning Coal and oil
Mixing with oxygen (O2)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Sulfur in coal and oil
Carbon in coal and oil

21. Peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN’s)
Photochemical Smog
PAN’s and other pollutants
Photochemical smog exists in all modern cities. NO2, O3, and PAN’s are considered to be Photochemical oxidants. Hotter days lead to high levels of ozone and photochemical smog.
VOC’s
Ozone (O3) O2
Nitric Oxide + Oxygen
H2O and UV radiation
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN’s) O2
Hydrocarbons
Nitric oxide (NO) O2
Nitrogen (N) in fossil fuel

22. Factors for increasing or decreasing Air Pollution
Particles heavier than air settle out.
Rain and snow cleanse the air.
Salty sea spray wash out particles and water-soluble pollutants as air flows from land to sea.
Winds sweep pollutants diluting them.
Natural chemical reactions remove pollutants. Acid Deposition.
Urban buildings can slow wind.
Hills and mountains can reduce air flow.
High temperatures promote chemical reactions.
VOC’s from plants and trees in wooded urban areas can play major role in photochemical smog formation.
Grasshopper effect – air pollutants from the tropics make their way to the Arctic
Temperature Inversions trap pollutants

23. Acid Deposition

24. Acid Deposition Can be wet or dry.
Has been occurring since the industrial revolution.
Is a regional air problem for areas downwind of coal-burning facilities and urban areas with many motor vehicles.
Is neutralized by Limestone soils that buffer the acid affect.
Harms thin acidic soils which provide no such buffering.
Leaches toxic metals (Pb and Hg) into lakes and water sources, which can bioaccumulate in fish, mammals, and birds.
Lowers pH of aquatic ecosystems harming fish. (pH < 4.5)
Harms crops by lowering soil pH
Effects Forests by leaching calcium and magnesium from the soils and allowing other metals such as Al, Cd, Hg, and Pb which weaken trees.

25. Acid Deposition

26. Acid Deposition

28. Acid Deposition Prevention Cleanup
Reduce coal use
Burn low sulfur coal
Increase use of renewable energy resources
Remove SO2 particles and NOx from smokestack gases
Remove NOx from motor vehicular exhaust
Tax emissions of SO2
Reduce air pollution by improving energy efficiency
Add time to neutralize acidified Lakes
Add phosphate fertilizer to neutralize acidified lakes

29. Indoor Air Pollution
The most threatening indoor air pollutants are smoke and soot from wood and coal cooking fires, and chemicals used in building materials and products.
Poses a much greater threat to human health than outdoor pollution.
Since 1990 EPA has placed indoor air pollution at the top of the list for 18 sources of cancer risk.
Particulates such as pollen, pet dander, dust mites, and cooking smoke particles can irritate lungs, cause asthma attacks, itchy eyes, runny nose and lung disease.
Toxic airborne spores of molds and mildew can cause headaches and allergic reactions. They can aggravate asthma, and other respiratory diseases.
Sick Building Syndrome effects 1 in 5 commercial buildings in the U.S.

31. Indoor Air Pollution
Four most dangerous indoor air pollutants in developed countries are tobacco smoke, formaldehyde, radioactive radon-222 gas, and very small particles.
Exposure to formaldehyde can lead to an increase risk of Lou Gehrig's Disease (ALS).
In 2008 CDC measured unhealthy levels of indoor levels of formaldehyde in many of the trailers and mobile homes used for Hurricane Katrina victims.
Radon-222 is produced by the natural radioactive decay of Uranium-238. Can accumulate in buildings where it decays to Polonium-210 and can cause lung cancer.
Smokers and former smokers tend to be the most susceptible to radon-related lung cancers. (90%)

32. Air Pollution Laws and Regulations
Clean Air Acts 1970, 1977, 1990
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
CO NOx SO2 SPM O3 Pb
Primary Standard to protect human health
Secondary Standard prevent environmental and property damage
Emission Standards
Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAP’s) that cause health and ecological effects.
Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) requires 21,500 refineries, power plants, hard rock mines, chemical manufactures, and factories to report their releases and waste management methods for 667 toxic chemicals.

33. Air Pollution Laws and Regulations
Environmental Scientists applaud the success of U.S. air pollution control laws but point to the following deficiencies:
The US continues to depend on pollution cleanup rather than prevention.
US congress failed to increase fuel-efficiency standards for cars, SUV’s, and light trucks.
Regulations of emissions from motorcycles and two cycle gasoline engines remain inadequate.
There is little to no regulation of air pollution from oceangoing ships in American ports.
Airports are exempt from many air pollution regulations.
Laws do not regulate emissions of greenhouse gas CO2.
Ultrafine particles are not regulated.
Urban ozone levels are still too high in many areas.
The laws have failed to deal seriously with indoor air pollution.
There is need for better enforcement of the Clean Air Acts.

34. Emissions Trading /Cap and Trade
Producers of air pollutants can buy and sell pollution rights.
Proponents argue it is cheaper than government management.
Critics say it allows older facilities to shirk their environmental responsibilities to reduce their pollution.
System tends to move pollutants to other areas without any real reduction in air pollution.
What about mercury?

35. Stationary Source Air Pollution Solutions
Prevention
Dispersion or cleanup
Burn low-sulfur coal
Remove sulfur from coal
Convert coal to a liquid or gaseous fuel
Shift to less polluting energy sources
Disperse emissions above thermal inversion layer with tall smokestacks.
Remove pollutants after combustion.
Tax each unit of Pollution produced

36. Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Solutions
Prevention
Cleanup
Use Mass Transit.
Walk or Bike.
Use less polluting fuel.
Improve fuel efficiency.
Get older polluting cars off the road.
Give large tax write-offs or rebates for buying low-polluting, energy efficient vehicles
Require emission control devices.
Inspect car exhaust systems twice a year.
Set strict emission standards

37. Indoor Air Pollution Solutions
Prevention
Cleanup or dilution
Clean ceiling tiles and line AC ducts to prevent release of mineral fibers.
Ban smoking or limit it to well-ventilated areas.
Set stricter formaldehyde emissions standard for carpet, furniture, and building materials.
Prevent radon infiltration.
Use office machines in well ventilated areas.
Use less polluting substitutes for harmful cleaning agents, paints, and other products.
Use adjustable fresh air vents for work spaces.
Increase intake of outside air.
Change air more frequently.
Circulate a building’s air through rooftop greenhouses.
Use efficient venting systems for wood-burning stoves.
Use exhaust hoods for stoves and appliances burning natural gas.

38. Air Pollution Solutions
Prevention
Cleanup or Dilution
Improve energy efficiency to reduce fossil fuel use.
Rely more on lower-polluting natural gas.
Rely more on renewable energy.
Transfer energy efficiency, renewable energy, and pollution prevention technologies to developing countries.
Reduce Poverty.
Distribute cheap and efficient cookstoves or solar cookers to poor families in developing countries.
Reduce or ban indoor smoking.
Develop simple and cheap tests for indoor pollutants such as particulates, radon, and formaldehyde.

39. What can you Do? Indoor air Pollution
Test for radon and formaldehyde inside your home and take corrective measures as needed.
Do not buy furniture and other products containing formaldehyde.
Remove your shoes before entering your house to reduce inputs of dust, lead, and pesticides.
Test your house or workplace for asbestos fiber levels, and check for any crumbling asbestos materials if it was built before 1980.
Do not store gasoline, solvents, or other volatile hazardous chemicals inside a home or attached garage.
If you smoke, do it outside or in a closed room vented to the outside.
Make sure that wood burning stoves, fireplaces, and kerosene/gas burning heaters are properly installed, vented, and maintained.
Install carbon monoxide detectors in all sleeping areas.