2. 2. The Changing Nature of Leadership

3. 3 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Complexities of Leadership  Leadership means different things to different people.  The meaning varies from country to country.  However, there are universally desired leadership attributes (GLOBE research).  The context in which leadership is practiced is a central question to understanding it.

4. 4 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Leadership Myths  Leaders are born, not made.  Leadership is hierarchical, and you need to hold a formal position (have status and power) to be considered a leader.  You have to have charisma to be an effective leader.

5. 5 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Leadership Myths  There is one standard way of leading.  It is impossible to be a manager and a leader at the same time.  You only need to have common sense to be an effective leader.

6. 6 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Definitions of Leadership  Early 1900s definition portrays the leader as controller of events and infers control over people.  Contemporary definitions focus on the relationship processes between people working toward a common goal.  Authors’ definition: A relational and ethical process of people together attempting to accomplish positive change.

7. 7 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Metaphorical Definitions of Leadership  Symphony  Consider roles of conductor and musicians.  Jazz ensemble  Consider roles of the musicians working together.  Performance art  Consider the balance of both process and outcomes.

8. Generations of Leadership Theories

9. 9 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Great Man Approach (Mid-1800s to early 1900s) Assumptions  Leadership development is based on Darwinistic principles.  Leaders are born, not made.  Leaders have natural abilities of power and influence. Critique  Scientific research has not proved that leadership is based on hereditary factors.  Leadership was believed to exist only in a few individuals.

10. 10 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Trait Approach (1904 to 1947) Assumptions  A leader has superior or endowed qualities.  Certain individuals possess a natural ability to lead.  Leaders have traits that differentiate them from followers. Critique  The situation is not considered in this approach.  Many traits are too obscure or abstract to measure and observe.  Studies have not adequately linked traits with leadership effectiveness.  Most trait studies omit leadership behaviors and followers’ motivation as mediating variables.

11. 11 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Behavioral Approach(1950s to early 1980s) Assumptions  There is one best way to lead.  Leaders who express high concern for both people and production or consideration and structure will be effective. Critique  Situational variables and group processes are ignored; studies failed to identify the situations in which specific types of leadership behaviors are relevant.

12. 12 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Situational/Contingency Approach (1950s to 1960s) Assumptions  Leaders act differently, depending on the situation.  The situation determines who will emerge as a leader.  Different leadership behaviors are required for different situations. Critique  Most contingency theories are ambiguous, making it difficult to formulate specific, testable propositions.  Theories lack accurate measures.

13. 13 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Influence/Charismatic Approach (1980s to 1990s)  Influence on followers is based on the leader’s charismatic personality rather than on traditional power and authority.  The context of the situation and the needs of the followers are particularly relevant considerations in determining what makes a leader charismatic.  Deference to a leader based on charm can lead to blind followership and misuses of power.

14. 14 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reciprocal Leadership Theories (1980s to the present) Several reciprocal theories are explored here. All of these theories:  Focus on the reciprocal nature of leader- follower interactions  Emphasize collective goals rather than the leader’s goal  Elevate the importance of the role of followers in the leadership process

15. 15 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reciprocal Leadership Theories: Servant Leadership  The leader’s role is to serve the followers.  What do they need in order to accomplish their goal? (training, encouragement, coaching, etc.)  The leader is motivated by a desire to make a positive difference for others. Critique  Is not a measurable model, so not supported by research.  Followers have a more traditional, passive role.

16. 16 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reciprocal Leadership Theories: Transforming Leadership “…a process where leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of morality and motivation.” ―James MacGregor Burns

17. 17 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reciprocal Leadership Theories: Transforming Leadership Major Assumptions  Leaders motivate by appealing to “higher ideals and moral values such as liberty, justice, equality, peace, and humanitarianism” rather than a transactional exchange of rewards or punishments  The group’s process matters as much as results.  Through the experience, both leaders and followers are transformed to higher ethical aspirations and conduct. Major Criticism  It is a vague theory, making it difficult to measure. Hard to prove the degree that leaders and followers are transformed  It is more leader-centric than most reciprocal theories.

18. 18 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reciprocal Leadership Theories: Complexity Theory “Leadership is not the influence of an individual but is embedded in a complex interplay of numerous interacting forces.” Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R., & McKelvey, B. (2007). Complexity leadership theory: Shifting Leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era. The Leadership Quarterly, 18, 298– 318.

19. 19 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reciprocal Leadership Theories: Complexity Theory Major Assumptions  The source of change is attributed to the interactive dynamics of all the people and ideas influencing the process.  People at all levels of the organization interact and adapt to rapidly shifting realities as they work toward their goal.

20. 20 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reciprocal Leadership: Adaptive Leadership Rather than getting followers to do the leader’s wishes, leadership occurs when interacting individuals generate adaptive outcomes that are needed to accomplish their goal.  Group members no longer rely on formal leaders to provide direction or authorization.  Requires group members with emotional intelligence and a strong sense of common values and goals.

21. 21 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reciprocal Leadership Theories: Shared Leadership “A dynamic, interactive influence process among individuals in groups for which the objective is to lead one another to the achievement of the group or organizational goals or both….Leadership is broadly distributed among a set of individuals instead of centralized in hands of a single individual who acts in the role of a superior.” Pearce, C. L., & Conger, J. A. (2003). Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

22. 22 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reciprocal Leadership Theories: Shared Leadership  Leadership is owned by the whole system as opposed to the formal leader.  Leadership is distributed among interdependent group members.  Leadership is embedded in social interactions, it occurs through relationships, with followers influencing and initiating leadership.  Leadership requires mutual learning, heightened understanding by learning from each other’s perspectives.

23. 23 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Followership Effective followers  Manage themselves well.  Are committed to the organization and to a purpose, principle, or person outside themselves.  Build their competence and focus their efforts for maximum impact.  Are courageous, honest, and credible. Kelley, R. E. (1988). In praise of followers. Harvard Business Review, 66(6), 142–148.

24. 24 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Emerging Leadership Theory Industrial Paradigm  Structural-functionalist  Management-oriented  Leader-centric (little attention to the role of others in the group)  Goal-achievement dominated  Self-interested and individualistic in outlook  Male-oriented  Utilitarian and materialistic in ethical perspective  Linear and scientific in language and methodology Post-Industrial Paradigm  More attention to relationships than organizational structure  Attention given to the interdependent roles of everyone in the group  Emphasis on good process as well as good results  Emphasis on good outcomes for everyone, not just the leader  Nonlinear approach. No step-by- step easy answers, but requires ability to adapt and respond

25. 25 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. A Rapidly Changing World: Chaos Theory The world:  Is inherently unpredictable  While at another level it displays a “hidden pattern”  Is made of connected wholes, rather than distinct parts  Cannot be controlled, but can be influenced

26. 26 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Chaos Theory: Competing Expectations and Realities The way things “ought” to be  Perfection is expected the first time.  Goals are predictable with complete certainty.  Control is expected.  Efficiency is the standard of competence.  Predictability is assumed. The way things actually are  Informed experimentation is necessary.  Additional and new goals will always appear.  Absolute control is rare and cannot be maintained over the long term.  Redundancy and detours fuel creativity and innovation.  Probabilities are the norm. Allen, K. E., & Cherrey, C. (2000). Systemic leadership: Enriching the meaning of our work. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, p. 20.

27. 27 Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Authentic Leadership  Authentic leaders know who they are, what they value, and act transparently.  Leadership relationships have  Transparency, openness, and trust  Are working toward worthy objectives  Emphasis on personal development of followers