1. Solutions... the components of a mixture are uniformly intermingled (the mixture is homogeneous).

2. Solution Composition 1.Molarity (M) = 2.Mass (weight) percent = 3.Mole fraction (  A ) = 4.Molality (m) =

3. Steps in Solution Formation Step 1 -Expanding the solute (endothermic) Step 2 -Expanding the solvent (endothermic) Step 3 -Allowing the solute and solvent to interact to form a solution (exothermic)  H soln =  H step 1 +  H step 2 +  H step 3

5. Henry’s Law P = kC P = partial pressure of gaseous solute above the solution C = concentration of dissolved gas k = a constant The amount of a gas dissolved in a solution is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the solution.

6. Raoult’s Law P soln =  solvent P  solvent P soln = vapor pressure of the solution  solvent = mole fraction of the solvent P  solvent = vapor pressure of the pure solvent The presence of a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solvent.

7. Vapor Pressure... is the pressure of the vapor present at equilibrium.... is determined principally by the size of the intermolecular forces in the liquid.... increases significantly with temperature. Volatile liquids have high vapor pressures.

8. Boiling Point Constant temperature when added energy is used to vaporize the liquid. vapor pressure of liquid = pressure of surrounding atmosphere surrounding atmosphere

9. Melting Point Molecules break loose from lattice points and solid changes to liquid. (Temperature is constant as melting occurs.) vapor pressure of solid = vapor pressure of liquid

10. Phase Diagram Represents phases as a function of temperature and pressure. critical temperature: temperature above which the vapor can not be liquefied. critical pressure: pressure required to liquefy AT the critical temperature. critical point: critical temperature and pressure (for water, T c = 374°C and 218 atm).

11. Colligative Properties Depend only on the number, not on the identity, of the solute particles in an ideal solution. - Boiling point elevation - Freezing point depression - Osmotic pressure

13. Boiling Point Elevation A nonvolatile solute elevates the boiling point of the solvent.  T = K b m solute K b = molal boiling point elevation constant m = molality of the solute

14. Freezing Point Depression A nonvolatile solute depresses the freezing point of the solvent.  T = K f m solute K f = molal freezing point depression constant m = molality of the solute

15. Osmotic Pressure Osmosis: The flow of solvent into the solution through the semipermeable membrane. Osmotic Pressure: The excess hydrostatic pressure on the solution compared to the pure solvent.

16. If the external pressure is larger than the osmotic pressure, reverse osmosis occurs. One application is desalination of seawater.

17. Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions  T = imK  = iMRT van’t Hoff factor, “i”, relates to the number of ions per formula unit. NaCl = 2, K 2 SO 4 = 3

18. Colloids Colloidal Dispersion (colloid): A suspension of tiny particles in some medium. aerosols, foams, emulsions, sols Coagulation: The addition of an electrolyte, causing destruction of a colloid.